During the 10th century CE Sayf al-Dawla, Sword of the Dynasty, ruler of the Emirate of Aleppo became the most prominent antagonist of the Byzantine Empire. Taking up the call of jihad, he launched devastating raids year after year across the Taurus mountains into the lands of the Byzantine Empire and won many pitched battles against the Byzantines. In 960, he once again crossed the Taurus mountains with the largest army he had ever assembled, ready to raid and pillage the lands of the Byzantines.Sayf al-Dawla The Sword of the DynastyMap of Sayf al-Dawlas Emirate of Alepp 955 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 944 CE, Ali ibn Abul-Hayja Abdallah, better known by his epithet Sayf al-Dawla meaning Sword of the Dynasty, became the emir of the independent Emirate of Aleppo. Having established his Syrian-Mesopotamian state, Sayf turned his attention to the Jazira Thugar, the fortified mountain frontier protecting northern Syria, and the Byzantine empire that lay beyond. Taking up the call of jihad or holy war, Sayf mainly preoccupied himself with fighting the Byzantines, becoming the chief antagonist of the Byzantine Empire during the 10th century.He proved a brilliant strategist and led several devastating large-scale raids against the Byzantines, returning with plenty of plunder and slaves. He quickly built a reputation as the sword of Islam, winning several victories against the Byzantines. As emir, Sayf quickly turned his emirate into a thriving cultural center attracting the likes of the famed poet Al-Mutanabbi and the philosopher al-Farabi, which further enhanced Sayfs reputation and that of his Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo.War With ByzantiumCitadel of Aleppo, the heart of Sayf al-Dawlas Emirate by Guillaume Piolle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSayfs enmity with the Byzantines even predated his becoming the emir of Aleppo. In the late 930s and early 940s, he already led several raids against Byzantine lands with some Muslim sources claiming a victory over the great Byzantine general John Kourkouas. By the end of his life, it is said that Sayf had fought more than 40 battles against the Byzantines.Sayf led his first raid as emir into Byzantine lands in the winter of 945946. It was a minor raid but a taste of things to come. The raid was followed by a prisoner exchange and a truce that would last until 948. When hostilities resumed Sayf gained a victory over the Byzantines in 948 but suffered a setback when his army was outmanoeuvred by Leo Phokas who attacked and sacked Hadath, an important Muslim fortress town. In 949, Sayf led another raid into Byzantine territory but was met with stiff resistance and decided to retreat. However, as the year before, the Byzantine circumnavigated his army and invaded his lands.Depiction of Sayf al-Dawla, the Emir of Aleppo, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 950, Sayf gathered a large army consisting of contingents from Aleppo, Cilicia, and several tribal auxiliaries, and once again crossed the Tauras mountains. He raided deep into Byzantine lands, pillaging and causing great devastation wherever he went. Sayf was eventually confronted by Bardas Phokas, the Domestic of the Schools (Commander-in-chief of the Byzantine armies) in the Armeniac theme. Sayf proved a dangerous foe and Bardas suffered a humiliating defeat on home soil at the Battle of the Lycus River. Sayfs victory, however, was short-lived. On his march back home, laden with prisoners and booty, the army was ambushed by Leo Phokas (Bardas son) while crossing through the narrow mountain passes and suffered a devastating defeat losing 8,000 men. Sayfs defeat was dubbed ghazwat al-musiba (the dreadful expedition).The Defender of IslamByzantine Frontier Zone by Cplakidas, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTrue to his character, Sayf refused the offer of peace made by the Byzantines. His legitimacy was based on his image as the heroic warrior and defender of Islam that he so carefully cultivated. Accepting peace would only undermine his legitimacy. As a show of force and demonstration of his dedication to war with Byzantium, he launched another raid into Byzantine lands in the very same year as the dreadful expedition but was forced to retire due to the onset of winter.Sayf decided to consolidate and fortify his side of the Jazira Thugar border before launching further raids. He spent the majority of 951 upgrading and improving the defenses of Germanicea (Marash), Adata (Hadath), and Samosata (Samsat). These upgrades would allow Sayf to better guard his borders, provide various bases from which to supply and launch his raids, and better scouting and defense for his return through the passes after raiding. This is something the Byzantines simply could not allow. Bardas Phokas decided to lead the Byzantine army in person to put a stop to Sayfs fortification efforts. Again, Sayf proved himself a dangerous enemy in a pitched battle and defeated Bardas in 952 and again in 953. Sayf followed up his victory over the Byzantines with another large-scale raid into Byzantium, ravaged the surrounding lands of Malatya, and captured the fort of Arqa (modern-day Akada) in the very same year of 953.Muslim Forces Defeat the Byzantines in Battle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn his return home, Sayf received news that Bardas had yet again invaded his territory. The emir marched his best troops to confront the Domestic of the Schools. Sayf caught up with Bardas near Germanicea (Marash) and the two armies clashed in a hard-fought battle. The Byzantines were once again badly beaten by Sayf al-Dawla. Bardas suffered a vicious facial wound and barely escaped the battle with his life. To make matters worse, Constantine Phokas, the youngest son of Bardas was captured at the battle and imprisoned in Aleppo. Sayf returned home to a heros welcome and his reputation as the defender of Islam spread throughout the Muslim world.The White Death of the SaracensByzantine Forces Besiege Arab City, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSoon after his defeat, Bardas was struck with the terrible news that his son Constantine died in captivity. The Arabs claimed he died from natural causes, but Bardas suspected foul play and, in his grief, the Domestic executed several of his high-ranking Muslim prisoners, some were family members of Sayf al-Dawla. He led another campaign in person in 954 and again in 955 but was defeated in both campaigns.Bardas was almost eighty years old and clearly not up to the task of defeating Sayf al-Dawla. In 955 he was succeeded by his oldest son, Nikephoros Phokas who became the new Domestic of the Schools. Nikephoros was a brilliant commander and capable strategist. Under his command, the army was reformed and drilled into a more professional force. He also reintroduced the use of cataphracts, super heavy cavalry with horses and riders armored from head to toe.Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas from a 15th-century manuscript; Venice, Biblioteca Marciana. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSayf followed up his success with yet another raid into Byzantine lands in 956. On his return home he found his path through the mountains blocked by John Tzimiskes, nephew of Nikephoros Phokas and a capable commander in his own right. What ensued was a bloody battle where Sayfs superior numbers won the day. The Byzantines, however, had sent a separate army under Leo Phokas to raid Sayfs lands while the emir was occupied raiding their lands. Leo managed to catch Abul-Ashair, Sayfs cousin, and his army completely off guard, and in the ensuing battle, Abul-Ashair was captured and sent off to Constantinople in chains.Sayf responded by launching another raid into Byzantine lands that same year, causing great devastation as he went. The raid, however, was cut short, and Sayf had to turn his army around to come to the aid of Tarsus, his most valuable ally, who suffered an amphibious assault by the Byzantines. While Sayf moved his army toward Tarsus, the Byzantines struck at his lands, raiding and pillaging around the area of Martyropolis (Mayyafariqin).Battle scene between Byzantines and Arabs forces, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt had become clear that Sayf was now facing a far more capable commander in Nikephoros, one who was able to apply a strategy of multiple-pronged attacks. While Sayf was a dangerous enemy in the field, he could not be in more than one place at a time. Every time he could not protect his allies or his own lands against the enemy attack chipped away at his reputation and legitimacy. Nikephoros future successes against the Muslim forces would eventually place him on the very throne of Byzantium and earn him the epithet of the White Death of the Saracens, referring to the Arabs turning pale with fear whenever he rode onto the battlefield.The Turning PointByzantine army of Nikephoros Phokas capture Arab city, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 957, Nikephoros led an army in person and sacked the city of Adata (Hadath). Nikephoros demonstrated his diplomatic skills by establishing secret communication with Sayfs Turkish mercenaries, offering them wealth to betray the emir. Sayf however caught wind of this and surrounded his Turkish contingent and massacred them with his loyal troops. The sudden lack of manpower and the distrust of his own men meant that Sayf was unable to come to the aid of Adata.The following year, in 958, Nikephoros sent another army under the command of Tzimiskes in Sayfs lands. Sayf sent a large army of 10,000 troops under the command of his most able commander, Nadja to confront the Byzantines. The newly reformed Byzantine army, however, was smashed through the Nadjas troops, killing 5,000 and capturing a further 3,000. Having received additional reinforcements, Tzimiskes followed up his victory with a siege of Samosata, an important Muslim city due to its wealth and strategic location. Sayf could not afford to lose the city and collected as many troops as possible to march to the aid of the city. He was however defeated by Tzimiskes at the Battle of Raban. Samosata fell soon afterward.Sayfs weakness was exploited, and the Byzantines led a major raid of Sayfs territories the following year.The Cretan Expedition and the Battle of AndrassosByzantine armies landing on Crete, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Byzantines lost the Island of Crete to the Muslims in the 820s. From then on, it served as a raiding base and a festering thorn on the side of the Byzantines. Several attempts were made to recapture the island, but all failed. In the 960s, Nikephoros led a major campaign to recapture the island. This would, however, require a huge amount of manpower, leaving the empire undefended. Sayf saw an opportunity in this and called for jihad. With his army numbering 30,000 troops, swelled with volunteers from the Muslim world, contingents supplied by Tarsus, and his armies from Aleppo, the emir launched a massive raid into Byzantium. As expected, Sayf was met with little resistance and laid waste to Byzantine lands, capturing a large amount of booty and prisoners. Leo Phokas, who was left in charge of the defense of Byzantium, simply had too few troops to face Sayfs large army in the field. Leo thus settled on an ambush in the mountain passes where Sayfs numbers would count for little.Sayf was marching his army home to fame and glory, reveling in his successful raid and the large amount of plunder he had gained. However, he still had to cross the Taurus mountains. The Tarsiots advised Sayf not to return home through the same pass he had come, but the emir was confident that the Byzantines would not dare attack his large army. The Tarsiots did not share his confidence, broke away from the main army, and returned home through a different route. On November 8, Sayf, completely unperturbed, led his forces through the Andrassos pass through which he came. As the army and its baggage train entered the narrow defile, Leos troops lay in their position, waiting for the signal to strike. When the entire column entered the defile, Leo gave the signal. When the trumpets sounded, followed by a nerve-shattering war-cry, the Byzantine soldiers appeared from all sides and rushed down upon the unexpecting column. Despite their numerical superiority, Sayfs troops were exhausted by their long march, taken by surprise, and completely unprepared for combat. It was more of a massacre than a battle. Sayf himself barely escaped with his life, saved only by casting all the coins on his person on the ground which made his pursuers stop to collect the discarded wealth. According to a later Arab source, Sayf escaped with a mere 300 cavalrymen.What Was the Aftermath of the Battle of Andrassos?Sayf al-Dawla fleeing after the defeat at Andrassos, 13th century Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt was a devastating defeat. Leo the Deacon claimed that the bones of the defeated army could still be found in the pass, many years after the defeat. John Skylitzes again states that the Byzantines had taken so many prisoners that the cities and farmsteads were crowded with slaves. Both contemporary and modern historians agree that the Battle of Andrassos broke Safys offensive power. Never would he be able to launch large-scale raids into Byzantine lands after his defeat. He had simply lost too many men. His followers had also lost faith in his ability and his call to arms and jihad would never again draw so many soldiers to his banners. A mere two years later in 962, Nikephoros Phokas led his troops against Aleppo itself. Sayf was powerless to stop him and was forced to abandon his city. The Byzantines stormed Aleppo and sacked the very capital of Sayf al-Dawla, the once formidable enemy of Byzantium.