Most societies throughout world history have been ruled by men. In these patriarchal systems, women typically come to the throne in the absence of male dynasts or as queens who outlive or overthrow their spouses. Most female rulers who exercised power in their own right are known as queen (or empress) regnants. However, within a few societies in the ancient and medieval world, female rulers were officially known as kings or equivalent titles conventionally reserved for men.1. HatshepsutStatue of Hatshepsut as a male king at her Mortuary Temple. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSeveral ancient Egyptian kings were women who used male titles. The first to do so was Sobekneferu, the final ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE. The longest-reigning and most successful of Egypts female kings was Hatshepsut, who hailed from the Eighteenth Dynasty. This dynasty ruled Egypt from around 1550 BCE to 1292 BCE and was known for its powerful royal women.Born around 1500 BCE, Hatshepsut was the daughter of King Thutmose I, a successful military leader who expanded his realm north into the Levant and south into Nubia. Her mother was Thutmoses Great Royal Wife, Queen Ahmose. When Thutmose I died, he was succeeded by Thutmose II, his son from a minor wife. To bolster the new kings claim to the throne, he was married to his half-sister Hatshepsut.Hatshepsut gave Thutmose II a daughter named Neferure. When Thutmose died in 1479, his young son Thutmose III came to the throne. Since the new king was still a child, Hatshepsut took control of the government as regent.This was standard practice, but in Year 7 of Thutmose IIIs reign (1473 BCE), Hatshepsut began representing herself as a male king with a beard and male pronouns. Her motivations for doing so are not entirely clear. However, according to the Egyptologist Peter Dorman, she may have done so at a time of political crisis to consolidate the claim of her stepson Thutmose III.Hatshepsuts Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahri. Source: ancient-origins.netHatshepsut backdated her reign as king to 1479, sharing her regnal years with Thutmose III. She continued to rule Egypt until she died in 1458. She was one of the most prolific builders in Ancient Egypt, restoring and expanding several temples in Karnak and building her grand Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahri on the west bank of the Nile in the Theban Necropolis.After Hatshepsuts death, Thutmose III ruled Egypt as sole king for another three decades, leaving a legacy as Egypts greatest warrior king. Near the end of Thutmose IIIs reign, there was an official campaign to erase Hatshepsuts kingship from history. The motivations behind this are unclear, though it may have been part of the kings efforts to consolidate the succession in favor of his son Amenhotep II.2. Neferneferuaten NefertitiIconic bust of Nefertiti at Berlins Neues Museum. Source: Staatliche Museen zu BerlinThe Eighteenth Dynasty is unique among ancient Egyptian dynasties for having two female kings. The second was Neferneferuaten, who ruled Egypt during a period of political turmoil in the 14th century BCE after King Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten and suppressed the Cult of Amun in favor of the sun disc Aten. This era is known as the Amarna Period, after the Arabic name for the site of Akhenatens new capital, Akhetaten.Egyptologists have had difficulty establishing the chronology of the Amarna Period, as later pharaohs attempted to erase all traces of the heretic king Akhenaten and his family. It has been particularly difficult to place the reigns of two kings, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten. The latter is known to be female based on the occasional appearance of the feminine t particle in her throne name, Ankhkhe(t)perure.Most Egyptologists now believe that King Neferneferuaten is none other than Akhenatens Great Royal Wife Nefertiti, who assumed the name Neferneferuaten in around Year 6 of Akhenatens reign. Aidan Dodson, one of the preeminent experts on the Amarna Period, argues that not long after Year 12 of Akhenatens reign, the royal family experienced a major crisis with the death of several members (likely from plague).Conscious of his mortality, and with only his infant son Tutankhaten as his heir, Akhenaten first elevated his elusive brother Smenkhkare as co-ruler. However, he died within a year or two, forcing the king to rethink his succession plans. In Year 16, Akhenaten designated his wife Neferneferuaten Nefertiti as a king in her own right. (Dodson, p. 83)Panel depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and three of their daughters under the rays of the sun disc Aten. Source: Egyptian Museum, BerlinFollowing Akhenatens death in Year 17 of his reign, Neferneferuaten ruled as king alongside Tutankhaten. Her reign lasted around three years, during which she may have tried to revive the Cult of Amun while continuing to worship the Aten herself. This was apparently not enough for the conservatives at court who wanted to abandon the Aten entirely. It is unknown how Neferneferuaten died, but Dodson believes that she was brutally killed in a power struggle. (Dodson, pp. 94-95)As sole ruler and under the influence of an advisor named Ay (possibly Nefertitis grandfather), Tutankhaten changed his name to the more familiar Tutankhamun, restored the old religion, and returned the court to Thebes. The likelihood that Neferneferuaten had fallen into disgrace is also shown by the fact that many of her grave goods were usurped by Tutankhamun for his famous tomb.3. Tamar of GeorgiaRepresentation of King Tamar from the Samtskhe-Javakheti History Museum at Alkhaltsikhe Castle based on original wall painting at Vardzia Monastery, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenKing Tamar of Georgia sat on her throne during the 12th century CE, the height of Georgias Golden Age. The Golden Age was inaugurated by King David IV, who ruled from 1089 until 1125. A formidable military leader, David centralized power internally and regained Tbilisi after defeating the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Didgori in 1121. His patronage of churches and monasteries earned him the nickname David the Builder. By the time of his death, his realm stretched from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea.Davids conquests were consolidated by his son Demetre I (1125-1156) and expanded by his grandson Giorgi (1156-1184). Giorgi had only two daughters. In 1178, he made his eldest daughter Tamar his co-ruler as King (mepe) of Kartli (the traditional name for central Georgia). This gave Tamar the time to gain political experience and acceptance among the Georgian nobility before her fathers death.In 1184, when she was around 25, Tamar was crowned king by the Georgian noble council and granted supreme civil and military authority. However, she was obliged to grant concessions to the council in the process. In 1191, she defeated an attempt by her divorced husband, Russian prince Yuri Bogolyubsky.Queen Tamar. Painting by Niko Pirosmani at the Sighnaghi National Museum, Sighnaghi, Georgia, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenTamars second husband, David Soslan, won further victories over Seljuk armies at Shamkhor (1195) and Basiani (1202), enabling her to gain suzerainty over the cities of Erzurum and Kars in what is now northeastern Turkey. Following the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, Tamar exploited her family connections to the exiled Byzantine House of Comnenus and helped them establish the Empire of Trebizond on Georgias western flank.After David Soslan died in 1206, Georgian armies continued to experience success, campaigning deep into Seljuk Persia in 1208-1210. When Tamar herself died in 1213, the kingdom of Georgia reached its largest extent. However, the luster of Georgias Golden Age would fade away very quickly as new players entered the stage.4. Rusudan of GeorgiaDirham of Rusudan of Georgia, 1230s. Source: Harvard Art Museums/Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Bequest of Thomas WhittemoreTamar and David Soslan had two children: a son named Giorgi and a daughter named Rusudan. After an unsteady start to his reign, Giorgi IV redeemed himself by defeating rebellious Turkish vassals in 1219. However, Georgia soon faced an unexpected invasion by Mongol generals Jebe and Subutai, who, in 1220, embarked on an ambitious three-year raid into the Russian principalities via the Caucasus after Mongol armies vanquished the Khwarazmian Empire. In January 1221, Giorgi was severely wounded in battle against the Mongols and died two years later in January 1223.While the late king had a young illegitimate son, he was succeeded by his younger sister, Rusudan. Since her mother Tamar had proved such a successful ruler, Rusudan faced little impediment in being recognized as king. She was a pragmatic ruler who aimed to rebuild the nation after the shock of the Mongol invasion.Her efforts were rudely interrupted in 1225. In his efforts to restore his late fathers empire, Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm sought an alliance with Georgia against the Mongols. When Rusudan refused, Jalal invaded her kingdom, defeated her generals, and captured Tbilisi. The Georgian monarch fled to Kutaisi in western Georgia. Thousands of Christians were massacred in Tbilisi for refusing to join in the desecration of sacred icons. As Rusudan continued to resist an alliance and offer of marriage from Jalal, Tbilisi was sacked in 1228.Sion Cathedral in Tbilisi suffered heavy damage during Jalal al-Dins invasions, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy ChenJalals death in 1231 offered Rusudan some brief respite. This came to an end in 1236 when the Mongol general Chormoqan renewed the invasion of Georgia. Rusudan was obliged to flee to Kutaisi once again. While she continued to exercise independent rule over Western Georgia, by 1238, central and eastern Georgia were under Mongol control.After unsuccessfully appealing to Pope Gregory IX for military assistance, she sought recognition for her son Davids right of succession in all of Georgia from the Batu Khan, ruler of the Golden Horde. While this was granted, when she died in 1245, David was obliged to travel to Karakorum, in the Mongol heartland. The Mongols also recognized Davids illegitimate cousin, David Ulu (David the Elder), and the two Davids ruled jointly until 1259.5. Mary of HungaryMary of Hungary from the Chronica Hungarorum, by Jnos Thurczy, 1488. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile female kingship was accepted in medieval Georgia, it was considered a temporary expediency in late 14th-century Hungary. Between 1342 and 1382, the central European kingdom was ruled by King Louis I of the French House of Anjou, who also inherited the Polish throne in 1370. While Louis was one of the most powerful Hungarian monarchs in history, he had no male heir. After his first wife died childless in 1349, he married Elizabeth of Bosnia in 1353. The couple waited until 1370 for the birth of a daughter. Two more girls followed in 1371 and 1373, respectively.In 1374, Louis second daughter, Mary, was betrothed to Sigismund of Luxembourg, the son of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. In 1378, Marys eldest sister, Catherine, died, leaving her the heir to her fathers kingdoms. Charles IV died a few months later, and Sigismund moved to the Hungarian court and was designated the heir to the kingdom of Hungary. The ambitious prince also laid claim to the succession in Poland.When Louis died in September 1382, Sigismund was suppressing a rebellion in Poland. Louis widow, Elizabeth, assumed the regency in the name of her daughter Mary, who was crowned king (rex Hungariae) on September 17. The peculiar arrangement was accepted by part of the Hungarian nobility. However, another faction resented political power being in the hands of two women and supported the succession of King Charles III of Naples (also known as Charles of Durazzo).Sigismund of Luxembourg, Painting attributed to unidentified Bohemian artist, 1433. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaIn the meantime, Elizabeth repudiated her daughters engagement to Sigismund and arranged for her to marry Louis of Orlans, the younger brother of King Charles VI of France. Sigismund was infuriated and led his army into Slovakia, forcing Elizabeth to acquiesce to his marriage with Mary in October 1385.They were unable to prevent Charles III from occupying the Hungarian capital of Buda. While Sigismund fled, Mary renounced the throne on December 31 and remained in Buda. Outwardly paying fealty to the new king, Elizabeth arranged an assassination attempt on Charles in February 1386. Two weeks later, on February 24, Charles died from his wounds. Mary was then restored to the throne.However, they faced opposition from loyalists of Ladislaus of Naples, the son of the slain Charles. In July, Elizabeth and Mary were captured in an ambush by their opponents. Elizabeth was killed in January 1387, but Mary was liberated by Sigismunds forces in June. She was officially her husbands co-ruler until she died in childbirth following a horse-riding accident in 1395, though her political influence was severely limited.6. Jadwiga of PolandJadwiga of Poland, portrait by Marcello Bacciarelli. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Royal Castle in WarsawMary of Hungarys reign as king of Hungary caused political instability, but her sister Jadwigas kingship over Poland proved more secure. Born in late 1373 (or early 1374), Jadwiga was soon betrothed to William of Austria, a member of the House of Habsburg. She was raised at the Austrian court in Vienna for two years but returned to Buda around 1378.The Polish nobles had sworn to recognize the succession of Jadwigas elder sister, Mary, to the Polish throne after King Louis died in 1382. However, the Poles demanded that their sovereign reside permanently within the kingdom. In early 1383, Queen Elizabeth agreed to allow her younger daughter Jadwiga to be crowned in Krakow on the condition that she return to Buda for three more years until her twelfth birthday.The Poles were unwilling to wait so long and threatened to recognize Duke Siemowit of Mazovia as king. Jadwiga was eventually crowned king of Poland in Krakow on October 16, 1384. This affirmed Jadwigas rule and ensured that her prospective spouse could not claim the title without the consent of the Polish nobility.The Polish lords did not believe that Jadwigas fianc, William of Austria, was capable or experienced enough to defend the kingdom from its regional rivals. By the summer of 1385, they urged Jadwiga to marry Jogalia, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Although he was a pagan, he was already an experienced ruler and was willing to convert to Catholicism.In response, William of Austria hurried to Krakow to press his claim to Jadwigas hand, which her mother Elizabeth had confirmed. It is unclear whether the pair consummated the marriage, but William soon left Krakow, possibly fearing assassination, leaving the path open for Jogalia.Wadysaw II Jagieo, King of Poland, detail from a triptych in Wawel Cathedral, Krakow, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn February 1786, Jogalia converted to Christianity and received the baptismal name of Wadysaw. He married Jogalia and was crowned king on March 4, 1386. Unlike Sigismund of Luxembourg, Wadysaw II Jagieo shared power with his wife. In 1387, the 13-year-old Jadwiga led an expedition to Ruthenia (Ukraine) to secure the submission of local lords.She was also an effective diplomat who met with her sister Mary in 1392 to address tensions between their respective courts after King Sigismund entered into an agreement with the Teutonic Knights to partition Poland. After Mary died in 1395, Jadwiga laid claim to Hungary but found little support among the Hungarian elite.Jadwiga became pregnant in late 1398 and gave birth to a daughter named Elizabeth Bonifacia in June 1399. The girl died within three weeks, and Jadwiga herself died a few days later, on July 17, 1399. Her widowed husband married three more times, founding the Jagiellonian Dynasty, which ruled Poland until 1572.Despite her short life, Jadwiga is remembered as one of Polands greatest monarchs. Through her marriage to Jogalia, she ensured the union of Poland-Lithuania, which became one of the most powerful states in Europe. Together with her husband, she established hospitals and educational institutions and re-established the Jagiellonian University in Krakow in the 1390s.She was venerated as a saint in Poland soon after her death, but her sainthood was only officially recognized in 1997 by the Polish Pope John Paul II.List of works citedDodson, A. (2020). Nefertiti: Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt: Her Life and Afterlife. American University in Cairo Press.