On September 18, 1931, the explosion of the Japanese-owned railway track near the city of Mukden, Manchuria in northeastern China, marked the beginning of a full-scale Japanese invasion of Manchuria. With minor resistance from the Chinese army, Japanese troops occupied the region within months and declared the territory an autonomous state of Manchukuo under the control of the Japanese military. China appealed to the newly established League of Nations for assistance, but the international body could not do much.Japans Quest for an EmpireMeiji Dignitaries by Toshinobo Yamazaki, 1877. Source: Library of CongressFollowing the restoration of imperial rule in 1868 under Emperor Meiji, Japan embarked on a radical modernization and industrialization of the nation. To support a rapidly growing and developing empire, Japan longed for colonies rich in resources, just like the European powers held.The Korean Peninsula, located just about 50 kilometers from Japans southern region, was rich in coal and iron, an essential natural resource for industrialization. However, China had claimed dominance over the Korean territory. The First Sino-Japanese War in July 1894 served as the first illustration of Japans growing imperialistic aspirations, especially when Japan emerged victorious. China recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and Manchuria in northeast China to Japan.A postcard from 1920 portraying the Japanese empire as a geographically far-flung, diverse assemblage of peoples and places. Source: East Asia Image Collection, Lafayette CollegeWestern powers intervened, notably the Russian Empire, Germany, and France, convincing Japan to return Manchuria to China. To Japans insult, however, the Russian Empire established its presence in Manchuria by building the Chinese Eastern Railway. The railway acted as a bridge between Russian territories and Port Arthur on the Yellow Sea, owned by the Russian Empire.Japan retaliated with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, sparking the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. The war ended with Japans victory and the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905. The treaty granted Japan control over the Korean peninsula, the south Manchurian railway, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island. To cement its influence over the strategically important railway, Japan stationed military forces in Manchuria.The Russo-Japanese War by Niko Pirosmani, 1904. Source: Art History ProjectJapan joined the AlliesGreat Britain, France, Russia, Italyin World War I. Following Germanys defeat, the Western powers granted Japan the territories of Tsingtao on the Chinese Shantung Peninsula and the formerly German-held islands in Micronesia under the mandate of the newly established League of Nations. Japans national pride had been avenged, as it seemed. Finally accepted by the West as a leading power in Asia, Japans expansionist aspirations were put aside, at least until the 1930s.The 1930s brought economic hardship internationally due to the Great Depression. Japan struggled to meet the demands of an expanding population and faced shortages of raw supplies for its industrialization. This contributed to the radicalization of military and right-wing organizations in Japan. These factions believed that to improve the socio-economic conditions of Japanese society, Japan should pursue aggressive expansionism through military efforts. By 1930, these organizations had carried out multiple assassination attempts on government officials, causing unrest across the nation.The Mukden Incident & Invasion of ManchuriaMap of Korea and Manchuria. Source: Library of Congress.On the night of September 18, 1931, Kwantung Army, a general army of the Imperial Japanese Army under Colonel Seishir Itagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara, executed an independently devised plan for detonating a small bomb on the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railway near the city of Mukden, Manchuria, in northeastern China. The explosion was so minor that a train passed the affected section in minutes. Shortly after the incident, Japanese patrols reported about the Chinese attack on the railway, utilizing it as a pretext to invade Manchuria.The next morning, on September 19, in response to the false-flag attack on Japans strategically important railway infrastructure, Japanese military officers opened fire on the Chinese garrison stationed nearby. Unprepared, the Chinese troops did not show strong resistance. By the evening, Mukden was under Japanese occupation.At this point, Commander in Chief of the Kwantung Army, General Shigeru Honj, was among the first to be informed of the incident in Mukden. Despite the initial decision to step back, the Imperial Japanese Army embarked on a full invasion of Manchuria. In just five months, key towns and provinces were under Japans control.In 1932, Japan declared the establishment of a new autonomous state on Manchurian territory named Manchukuo. It was nominally led by Puyi, the last emperor of Chinas Qing dynasty, but ruled by the Japanese military. Manchukuo existed until the end of World War II in 1945.Street scene, Manchukuo, c. 1940. Source: Old TokyoWhile the Japanese forces advanced in Manchuria, the Chinese government faced significant internal challenges and obstacles, including insurrections from the Communist Party. The Chinese army was poorly equipped and trained. A massive flood of the Yangtze River in China in September 1931 resulted in thousands of refugees, creating public chaos. Due to these internal obstacles, on September 19, the Chinese government appealed to the League of Nations to resolve its territorial dispute with Japan. On October 24, the League of Nations issued a resolution calling for Japan to withdraw from Manchuria by November 16. Japan rejected the resolution, insisting on direct negotiation with the Chinese government.The swift takeover of Manchuria by Japan created unease among the global community. As previously mentioned, Western powers were in economic recession in the wake of the Great Depression. Struggling to maintain their own economies, entering a new war in Asia was widely perceived as unfavorable. For the same economic reasons, imposing economic sanctions on Japan did not acquire much political support either.US Diplomatic Involvement: The Stimson DoctrineA political cartoon referring to the League of Nations and the conflict between China and Japan. Source: Branksome Hall AsiaThe United States refrained from involvement or economic sanctions in the face of a rapidly escalating crisis on the Asian continent and chose to join the League of Nations council meetings, despite not being a member of the league itself. The United States suggested that the League of Nations persuade the conflicting parties to enforce the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which had been signed by 15 participating nations, including Japan, on August 27, 1928. The pact prohibited war as a means to advance national policy and called for the peaceful resolution of conflicts.Another American contribution to resolving the crisis was the Stimson Doctrine, issued in 1932. Created by Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson, the doctrine regarded the Japanese invasion of Manchuria as a violation of international law and the previous treaties to which Japan had been a signatory.According to the doctrine, the United States would adhere to the policy of non-recognition, implying that any territorial or administrative changes imposed upon China by Japan would not be in compliance with international law.The League of Nations brought up the Stimson Doctrine during the Mach 1932 Assembly meeting, condemning Japans invasion of Manchuria as it violated the Leagues principles of peaceful resolution of conflict and respect for the sovereignty of all nations. Regarding the effectiveness of his doctrine, Stimson later remarked that he only had spears of straw and swords of ice at that time.The League of Nations Diplomatic Involvement: The Lytton ReportMembers of the Lytton Commission by Dennis M. Ogawa Nippu Jiji. Source: Densho Digital Repository / Courtesy of the Hawaii Times Photo Archives FoundationOn December 19, 1931, the League of Nations passed a resolution to establish a commission of inquiry, widely referred to as the Lytton Commission, headed by British diplomat Lord Victor Bulwer-Lytton. The commission was tasked to investigate the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and report all the circumstances leading up to the Sino-Japanese conflict. Under no circumstances could the commission mediate or negotiate between the conflicting parties. Each national government of the Leagues Assembly nominated members of the commission based on their qualifications.The five-member commission was sent to Manchuria in April 1932.By the time the League of Nations released the resulting report, also known as the Lytton Report, in October, Japan had already established the puppet state of Manchukuo. The report found both Chinese nationalism and Japanese militarism to be responsible for the escalating crisis. However, because the establishment of the puppet state violated Chinas territorial integrity, Manchukuo was dismissed as a legitimate actor in the international system. As such, the report concluded that Manchuria should be returned to China. In 1933, the League of Nations approved the report. Japan responded by formally leaving the League of Nations in March 1933.Japan will oppose any attempt at international control of Manchuria. It does not mean that we defy you, because Manchuria belongs to us by right, thehead of the Japanese delegation, Yosuke Matsuoka, declared in a speech at the Geneva League of Nations assembly held on February 24, 1933. Matsuoka then left the conference room.Japans Invasion of Manchuria as a Prerequisite of World War IIJapanese troops in gas masks during the Battle of Shanghai. Source: Military History ReviewThe dramatic walkout of the Japanese delegation from the Geneva meeting exemplified the League of Nations limitations in resolving the conflict through peaceful means. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria was the first case since the League of Nations establishment in 1920, when the organization was given the chance to set the precedent for pacific settlements of territorial disputes. However, the lack of enforcement mechanisms, the absence of military power, and its dependence on the will and ability of member states to enforce the decision led to its failure.Witnessing Japans smooth withdrawal from the League of Nations following the occupation of Manchuria, other European powers with imperialist and expansionist ambitions saw an opportunity to pursue their national interests: Italys fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935. On March 7, 1936, Germany, under Adolf Hitler, remilitarized the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone according to the Treaty of Versailles. On July 7, 1937, a minor clash between Chinese and Japanese troops at the Marco-Polo Bridge inChina sparked the Second Sino-Japanese War.Japans occupation of Manchuria illustrated the League of Nations limitations in enforcing its decisions, highlighting obstacles to international diplomacy and collective security in the fragile international order established after World War I. Other nations with expansionist interests felt encouraged to pursue their goals, which ultimately led to the outbreak of World War II.