Continuous Seljuk raids and sieges in Anatolia in the 11th century CE culminated in a war between these nomadic newcomers and the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire. When the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, and the Byzantine emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes, met on the fields of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, neither could have imagined the outcome: the weakening of Byzantine rule and the gradual Turkification of Anatolia.The Byzantines in the 11th Century CEMosaic of Theodora, Basilica of San Vitale, Italy, c. 547 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the mid-11th century CE, the Byzantine Empire was experiencing political and economic turmoil. In 1057, a civil war broke out between two rival Byzantine factions. A few years earlier, the Pechenegs, a semi-nomadic Turkic people employed as mercenaries, had revolted. The numerous wars that the Byzantines were involved in worsened the already stagnant economy.They were also experiencing a religio-political crisis. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches had developed theological differences that led to each side being branded as heretics and blasphemers by the other. By 1054, this dispute had exploded into a full-blown schism between the two Churches.From 1025 to 1081, the Byzantines had seen a total of 13 emperors. The quick turnaround of emperors (and empresses) reflected the divisions amongst the ruling class. Factionalism grew as the military class began to support royals who they believed would enlarge their estates in the provinces.Amidst all of this, the Turks, nomadic newcomers to Western Asia, had begun to chip away at the Byzantine frontiers. Destructive raids on eastern and central Anatolian cities encouraged locals to migrate to safer areas, allowing the Turks to encroach further into the Byzantine heartland.Arrival of the SeljuksCoronation of Seljukid Sultan Sancar, by Rashid-al-Dins in Jami-al Tawarih, c. 14th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Seljuks first emerged on the world stage in the 11th century CE. Originally a nomadic pastoralist people, the Seljuks lived a tribal lifestyle on the steppes of Central Asia. They were part of a large political confederation-turned-ethnic group called the Oghuz Turks. In the late 10th to the early 11th centuries, a chieftain named Seljuk led his clan on a long migration through Central Asia. His warriors worked as mercenaries for local dynasties like the Ghaznavids.Sometime during these migrations, Seljuk and his tribe converted to Islam, which changed the nomads relationships with existing Islamic powers. Under Seljuks grandsons, Tughril and Chaghri Beg, the clan besieged and conquered several Central and Western Asian cities, including Merv (in modern-day Turkmenistan), Nishapur (Iran), and Baghdad (Iraq). This Turkic influx into Western Asia caused civil and political unrest as sedentary and semi-nomadic populations encountered one another.At the same time, both the Turks and the existing Islamic civilisations had to learn to adapt and accept one another. The so-called civilized sedentary lands began to appreciate the strength and conquering power of steppe armies, while the Turks were introduced to Islamo-Persian styles of governance and bureaucracy.A shrewd and efficient leader, Tughril Beg quickly realized that he and his people would have to adapt to survive in these new lands. He had the khutbah (traditional Friday sermon) read in his name and declared himself Sultan in the Islamic style. Since he died childless, Tughril was succeeded by his nephew, Alp Arslan. Under Alp Arslan, Turkmen, another name for the nomadic Turks, conducted raids into the nearby Christian territories of Georgia, Armenia, and Eastern Anatolia.Seljuk Raids and ConquestsTurkmen soldiers of the Seljuk Court, in Book of Antidotes of Psuedo-Gallen, c. 1250. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Turkmen were a militaristic people. They were fiercely loyal to their hierarchical and highly patriarchal tribes, clans, and families. This type of system developed on the volatile Central Asian steppe, where nomadic empires and tribes frequently raided, subjugated, and even enslaved one another.The Oghuz had 24 paramount tribes. The Seljuk clan belonged to the Kinik tribe, considered a princely and royal one. The Turkmen tribes were critical to Seljuk military successes. Tribal chieftains had thousands of warriors under their command. The Seljuks certainly understood the value of these people. The Persian vizier and philosopher Nizam-ul-Mulk encouraged the Seljuk sultans to keep the Turkmen satisfied because they had played a great role in the Seljuk conquests.While the Seljuk dynasty was increasingly taking on the personality of a sedentary empire in the 1040s, the Turkmen tribes began to grow discontented. They pillaged and plundered many Muslim towns, risking the legitimacy of the Seljuk government. Probably to direct the Turkmens energy elsewhere, Sultan Alp Arslan organized multiple raids in the 1050s-60s.Taking advantage of Byzantine military weakness, the Seljuks routinely raided Anatolian provinces, even going as far as Sivas (Central Anatolia) in 1059. Although the main effort was to secure pasturage and plunder, in 1064 the raid of Ani, a medieval Armenian city, turned into a siege and conquest.When Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes ascended to the Byzantine throne in 1068, he quickly implemented military reforms to stop the Turkish advance. Several failed peace treaties throughout the 1060s culminated in Romanos IVs decision to wage war against the Seljuks.The Battle of ManzikertArcheological dig to locate the site of the Battle of Manzikert, Eastern Turkey. Source: Arkeoloji Sanat YaynlarDiogenes IV sent his weary army on a long trek across Anatolia. The diverse force, numbering roughly 40,000 soldiers, consisted of Byzantine troops and mercenaries of Pecheneg, Bulgarian, and Frankish origin. Romanos ordered half of these troops to march to Ahlat to take the nearby fortress while the rest continued to Manzikert, significantly reducing the size and power of his army.Still, on the 23rd of August, he captured Manzikert. A few days later, the Pecheneg and other Turkic mercenaries deserted to the Seljuk side. As a force of around 40,000-50,000, the Seljuks now outnumbered the Byzantine army. Despite this, Seljuk troops began to disengage with their enemies, and when pursued, their cavalry withdrew. Byzantine forces, initially confused, became convinced that the Turks were retreating. What they did not realize was that the Seljuks were using a classic tactic of steppe warfare in which horse archers, feigning retreat, would hit their enemies with a barrage of arrows.Initially, it seemed as though the Byzantines were to have the upper hand when they captured some of Sultan Alp Arslans camp. However, a series of confusions ultimately caused their destruction. Romanos was aware of his armys exhaustion and called for a retreat. Instead of covering this withdrawal, the rearguard also withdrew, leaving the Emperor and his Varangian Guard to be encircled by the Seljuks. Taking advantage of the confusion, the Turks used the crescent tactic, also known as a pincer movement, to surround and destroy the Byzantine army.Capture of Romanos IV DiogenesAlp Arslan stepping on the throne of Emperor Romanos IV, from French manuscript MS Franais 232, fol. 323, c. 15th century CE. Source: National Library of FranceThe Seljuks, now having the upper hand, were quick to find Emperor Romanos, who was wounded. He was taken prisoner to the camp of Sultan Alp Arslan, who was surprised at the state of the emperor. Appearing ragged and dirty, the Emperor was now at the mercy of Alp Arslan.According to legend, the Sultan placed his foot on the Emperors neck, forcing him to the ground in a ritual of submission. It is more likely that the two kings showed courtesy towards one another, both aware of their opponents nobility. Romanos stayed in captivity for eight days, during which the two sides reached a peace agreement.Romanos was set free once the Byzantines agreed to pay an annual tribute and a ransom to the Seljuks. Yet Romanos troubles were just beginning. Taking advantage of the chaotic situation, a prominent family named Doukas and their supporters overthrew the emperor, replacing him with Michael VII Doukas. Romanos was then blinded with a red-hot iron, a common form of punishment in Byzantium, and exiled to the island of Prote, where he died in 1072.Alp Arslan, on the other hand, gained fame and popularity from the victory. Contemporary sources wrote about his dominating, elegant, and kingly appearance. The battle also became a symbol of his righteousness and struggle for Gods cause. In an interesting twist of fate, five months after Emperor Romanos demise, Alp Arslan was killed after being stabbed by the rebel commander of Berzem fortress.Aftermath of ManzikertExtent of the Byzantine Empire by 1170 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Battle of Manzikert had major socio-political ramifications, like the Battle of Hastings in England only five years earlier. It was the decisive point after which the Byzantines began to lose control of Anatolia and started a protracted Turkic migration and settlement in the region.However, these changes did not occur immediately. Although the Byzantines conceded the cities of Manzikert, Antioch, and Edessa to the Seljuks, the latter returned to their capital of Ray (in Iran). From there, they focussed their attention on raids in Georgia and their struggle against the Fatimids, the North African rivals of the Abbasid Caliphate.The effect of Manzikert on Byzantium was much greater. It caused another bout of internecine strife as the court, again factionalized between Emperor Romanos and a contender from the noble Doukas family. Western European mercenaries, like Roussel de Bailleul, took advantage of the political chaos to increase their power by forming principalities. De Bailleul further destabilized the Byzantine Empire after he and his army sacked a district of Constantinople and supported John Doukas as a challenger to the throne.Turkification of AnatoliaAtlas showing a bey (Turkmen lord) and the beyliks (principalities), by Abraham Cresques, c. 1375 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough Anatolia was still largely controlled by Crusader and Byzantine forces after the battle, the Seljuk victory allowed Turkic generals to carve out their own principalities. Especially in the uj or frontier territories, Turkmen generals were encouraged to settle with their clans and protect Seljuk borders. As always, the nomadic Turkmen clans played a major role in increasing the territories of their overlords. Not only did they supply manpower during battle, but they were constantly in search of new pasture land for their flocks, the main source of their livelihoods. Historians note that Byzantine-Seljuk peace treaties were often breached not by the Seljuks, but Turkmen nomads who invaded Byzantine villages in search of fields to graze their animals.By 1100, an array of Turkic principalities including the Artukids, Saltukids, and Danishmendids, cemented their power. These border principalities, which in later centuries would include the Ottomans, advanced their states through the patronage of art, architecture, and knowledge. They built religious structures, including madrasahs (schools) and mosques, as well as secular structures, like caravanserais.As the Turkmen clans began to settle in cities with rich pasturage, they also interacted with local populations. These interactions did not solely revolve around raids and plunder. On the frontiers, both Byzantine and Turkmen populations were isolated from the cultural and legal centers of their respective governments. They developed a mutual culture based on chivalry and heroism, reflected in their folk music and poetry. Assimilation and intermarriage were thus not unusual in these areas, occurring over centuries of co-existence.For the Turks, the Battle of Manzikert became a symbol of the beginning of the Turkish conquest of Anatolia. For the Byzantines, it was seen as a disaster that triggered another bout of political and economic decline, which eventually ended in the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453.