Belisarius was a renowned military commander with impressive battlefield achievements. Hampered by limited resources in both men and money, he spearheaded Emperor Justinians attempt to reconquer the key territories of the former Western Roman Empire: Africa, Hispania, Italy, and Gaul. Yet, no victory would be complete without Rome. King Theodoric the Great had been an effective ruler of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. When he died, Justinian saw an opportunity to reclaim Rome for the Byzantine Empire.Theodoric and the Kingdom of ItalyCoin depicting Flavius Theodoricus (Theodoric the Great), Roman Vassal and King of the Ostrogoths. Source: Collection of Italian numismatic Francesco GnecchiWhile many people characterize barbarians as pillaging hordes bent on destruction and death, the barbarian was simply a term that the ancient Romans and Greeks used to describe ethnic groups that did not observe the same laws or culture or speak the same language as they did.The Germanic Kingdoms and the Eastern Roman Empire in 526. Map from Shepherd, W. R. (1911) The Historical Atlas. Source: The University of Texas at AustinTheodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, was an intelligent, cultured ruler who not only expanded his kingdom of Italy but also produced great works of art and architecture that built on the legacy of the Western Roman Empire.By Roman standards, Theodoric was a civilized barbarian of the former Western Roman Empire. Despite being an Arian Christian, he did not try to convert or subvert Italys ingrained orthodox Roman populace. Later generations added Great to his name in honor of the prosperity of his kingdom. The Ostrogoths changed little of the Roman administration and demonstrated respect and esteem for the Roman way of life and civilization (Hughes, pg. 73).Theodorics tomb in Ravenna by Robert von Spalart, 1804-1811. Source: The Wellcome Collection, LondonThe death of Theodoric in 526 and the elevation of his ten-year-old grandson, Athalaric, set the stage for the Gothic War between Theodorics successors and Emperor Justinian. The appointment of Athalarics mother, Amalasuntha, as regent increased tensions. She was well-educated and spoke Latin, Greek, and Gothic. The Ostrogoth nobles not only objected to a woman having such power over their king but also opposed her pro-Byzantine policies. They insisted that Athalaric should be brought up as a proper Goth instead. The young man started drinking heavily, and it soon became evident that he would not match his grandfathers longevity.Queen Amalasuntha of the Ostrogoths, 1500-1850. Source: The Austrian National Library, ViennaAfter Athalarics death, Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, and they became co-monarchs of the Ostrogoth Kingdom. Amalasuntha considered him easily controllable since he was more interested in academic pursuits than political affairs. However, Theodahad was a more dangerous adversary than she anticipated. He deposed Amalasuntha and exiled her to Martana, an island in Lake Vulsina. Knowing that his actions would attract a response from Justinian, Theodahad arranged Amalasunthas murder to prevent her raising a resistance against him.The Invasion of Italy Begins in EarnestEmperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAt first, it seemed that all of Italy would fall into the hands of Justinian with no need for further bloodshed, but the Roman General Mundus, entrusted with the conquest of Salona on the Adriatic coast (present-day Solin, Croatia), came to a grisly end in the Balkans. During an encounter with the Goths, Mundus fell, leaving his army leaderless and depriving Justinian of a trusted and able general. The Roman army in Dalmatia was forced to retreat. Theodahad displayed an unexpected spark of courage. He withdrew his offer to surrender Italy for extensive estates and an annual income of just under 90,000 solidi.The military situation was going much better for Belisarius. Having conquered North Africa, he landed in Sicily in 535 and quickly secured the surrender of Theodahads son-in-law and his men on the island as well as the Goths who were supposed to be guarding the straits separating Sicily from the Italian peninsula. The Romans then slowly but surely moved up the boot of Italy to the fortified city of Neapolis (present-day Naples), and encountered their first serious resistance in Italy. Naples was the center of Gothic power in southern Italy and was defended by a strong garrison.Belisarius could not risk bypassing Neapolis. Therefore, he initiated a blockade of the citys walls from land and sea but realized he could not afford to besiege the city indefinitely and give the Goths time to raise reinforcements to destroy the Romans. Thankfully for Belisarius, Theodahad was indecisive and made no attempt to reinforce Neapolis. The fortifications would still be an immense challenge, making it nearly impossible to bring ships close enough to attack the city.Aqueduct Tunnels Beneath Naples. Source: The Hydria Virtual MuseumTwenty days passed, and several attempts were made to take the city by assaulting its walls. With no success and only further losses that the Romans could not sustain for long, in true Belisarius fashion, a brilliant stroke of luck would soon manifest in one of the Roman foederati (allies): an Isaurian who had climbed up a broken part of an aqueduct leading into Neapolis. Belisarius tried to get the garrison to surrender one last time, but they refused.After some initial difficulties, the troops exited the aqueduct tunnel. They ran to the northern walls, killing the sentinels in the two main towers and taking the Goths entirely by surprise (Jacobsen, p. 91). The defenders were shocked but managed to hold for a more extended period on the South Wall, but once the Romans attacked in the rear, they finally fled, and at last, the road to Rome lay open.Restoration of RomeThe Walls and Gates of Rome in the early 6th century. Source: 1919 Edition of Procopius History of the Wars translated by H. B. DewingBy 536 CE, Theodahad began contemplating his next move against Belisarius. He established a Goth garrison in Rome, but placing Gothic troops in the city set off rioting. When protests escalated, the nobles who had once supported Theodahad lost confidence in him. Citing his ineffective leadership and failure to protect major cities such as Neapolis, they removed him from power. In his place, they selected the warlord Vitigis, an experienced soldier, to be the new king. (Parnell, pg. 93). Theodahad soon fled for his life, but Vitigis and the nobles hunted him down and killed him near Ravenna.Vitigis returned to Rome and demanded that Pope Silverius swear an oath of loyalty to the Gothic cause. He demanded the same vow from the Senate and other leading citizens. Vitigis even held several senators hostage as a reminder of the consequences for betrayal. Despite his bravado, he avoided immediate confrontation with Belisarius. Instead, he placed 4,000 men in the garrison before departing for Ravenna to counter a Frankish threat to the Gothic heartlands in northern Italy. He was confident that the garrison could provide adequate protection until he returned with reinforcements.In Vitigis absence, Pope Silverius sent an envoy to Belisarius, urging him to march with all haste to Rome to take possession of the city. As the Roman expeditionary force advanced along the Via Appia, the Gothic garrison prudently chose to retreat. Belisarius led his men into the city via the Porta Asinaria without serious opposition. He sent the one remaining Gothic commander to Emperor Justinian with the keys to the city (Sarris, p. 227).The Gothic CounterattackKing Vitigis of the Ostrogoths, 17th century. Source: The Austrian National Library, ViennaBelisarius knew that the Goths would direct their vengeance against him sooner or later. Belisarius ordered a moat to be dug around the city walls of Rome, and for the areas of the walls that had deteriorated due to neglect to be repaired (Hughes, p. 133). Using Rome as his principal base, Belisarius also dispatched troops to take control of the surrounding countryside.Alongside the repairs to the walls, he stockpiled provisions for a siege, even though the citizens informed him that attempts to defend all of Romes walls were not possible. All able-bodied Roman males were signed up to protect the walls and free up Belisarius men for field duty in case they had to fight beyond the city walls of Rome. Belisarius reputation as a skilled military leader encouraged neighboring Gothic commanders to join his forces despite Vitigis foot soldiers and cavalry outnumbering the Roman army.Even with their significant numerical advantage, Vitigis could still not surround the citys complete circuit defenses when the Goths finally arrived. The King of the Goths also did not fully feel comfortable trying to take Rome by storm, which would inevitably bring significant casualties and could easily lead to a complete collapse in morale (Sarris, p. 228).As the siege tightened, Belisarius sent Justinian a letter imploring the emperor to provide reinforcements. Justinian ordered more men from Greece to Italy, but this proved painfully slow. Vitigis looked for any tactics to break the Romans determination. He ordered his troops to block the aqueducts leading into the city. He wanted Romes citizens to suffer for choosing the wrong master.Belisarius thwarted Vitigis vengeance with a clever solution. He showed the citizens that the Tiber River could provide both a natural defense and hydraulic power for the mills that made the citys flour. With this strategy, Belisarius prevented riots and increased support. He planned food rationing and organized shelters in the citys buildings.The Siege of Rome BeginsWalls of Rome: The Aurelian Wall. With the Pyramid of Cestius. Painting by Isaac Weld, 1818. Source: The Yale Center for British Art, ConnecticutDespite the initial indecisiveness about a direct assault on Rome, the Goths realized they could not afford an indefinite siege. Vitigis ordered the construction of great siege towers to breach the massive Aurelian Walls. The fighting was incredibly desperate as the Romans had to fight against two simultaneous attacks on the walls. Time after time, the enemy came within mere inches of overwhelming Belisarius men.Belisarius seemed to be everywhere at once, firing arrows and aiding his men in hacking away at the scaling ladders. Soon, 30,000 Goths lay dead or dying on the battlefield, and Vittigis was left with seemingly nothing but the ashes of the smoldering remains of his siege towers (Brownsworth, p. 94).Despite these early victories, Belisarius knew the siege would test the limits of his soldiers capabilities. Fortunately, he had capable officers and seasoned veterans at his disposal. Belisarius could trust his subordinates to execute orders and adapt to the changing conditions of the battlefield. Still, he understood that his mission required further reinforcements, so he asked Justinian for additional troops. The Emperor ignored Belisarius requests. If his most skilled general could deliver Africa with a mere handful of men, why should Italy be any different?Just as the Romans manpower was at a breaking point, Justinian relented and sent reinforcements. Within the Gothic camp, Vitigis forces grew impatient and weary. They were exposed to the elements, running short of food and trying to avoid sickness in unsanitary conditions. Vitigis knew he was fighting a losing battle. Even the land itself around Rome seemed utterly exhausted (Brownsworth, pg. 95).The Light of Rome Is Not Yet ExtinguishedMap of Europe in around 565 CE after Justianians reconquests. From A History of medieval and modern Europe from secondary schools by W. S. Davis and N. S. McKendrick, published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. Source: The Library of Congress, Washington DCOnce Vittigis figured out that a Roman advance force had managed to slip out of Rome and capture the town of Rimini, only 33 miles from Ravenna, he realized there was no glory to be gained and cursed the winds that brought these Romans to his shores.He ordered his army to withdraw from Rome, and Belisarius ensured that the Goths would pay for their arrogance by inflicting a humiliating rout on them.With only a few thousand men, the Roman general had taken on the mighty Ostrogothic Kingdom and managed to cripple its fighting abilities within only two years (Brownsworth, p. 96). Having fallen to barbarians on several occasions over the previous centuries, the Eternal City of Rome now seemed secure under the firm protection of the empire, but would it stay that way?BibliographyBrownworth, L. (2009). Lost to the west. The forgotten Byzantine Empire that rescued Western Civilization. Three Rivers Press.Hughes, I. (2009). Belisarius: The Last Roman General. Westholme Publishing, LLC.Jacobsen, T. C. (2012). The Gothic War: Justinians Campaign to Reclaim Italy. Westholme Publishing, LLC.Parnell, D. (2023). Belisarius & Antonia: Love and War in the Age of Justinian. Oxford University Press.Sarris, P. (2023). Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. Basic Books.