From a certain perspective, the history of Europe is intrinsically linked to the history of the sword, the evolution of which tells the story of European warfare through the ages.From the Bronze Age through Antiquity, to the Medieval Era, and even into the 20th century, swords have played a major part in shaping the history of the war-torn continent of Europe. As technology evolved, so did warfare, and with it, the sword.This is the story of the evolution of swords in Europe.European Swords in the Ancient EraA depiction of a Greek (right) hoplite and a Persian warrior. The Greek is holding a kopis. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile spears have been a common feature in warfare for many millennia, swords started appearing in Europe around 1600 BCE. These swords, typically made of bronze, were generally leaf-shaped, and lent themselves to slashing and thrusting. There were, however, many shapes in sword design, with different lengths and blade shapes.Being made of bronze, an alloy of mainly copper and tin, these weapons were cast rather than forged. The advent of the iron age around 1200 BCE signified a change in warfare as iron swords began to replace bronze swords over the course of several hundred years.In Greece, two designs stood out. The xiphos was a leaf-shaped blade that has become an archetypal image in depicting ancient Greek warriors, while the kopis was a forward-curving (or recurved) blade that was designed for slashing, thrusting, and drawing cuts. The kopis was heavier toward the tip of the blade, meaning that there was more force behind the hacking motion, similar in concept to an axe. In the Iberian peninsula a regional variant of the kopis, the falcata, was popular, and it found use in the Carthaginian army as well.(Left) Gladius Hispaniensis remains, 3rd-1st centuries BCE; (Right) Reproduction of a Roman gladius. Sources: Wikimedia CommonsJust as the xiphos and the kopis were stereotypically linked to the Greeks, the gladius was an iconic part of the Roman legions. Originally copied from the Iberians, this sword was adept at both thrusting and slashing, but the key to its effectiveness was the fact that it was short. Standard issue to the Roman legions was the semi-cylindrical shield, the scutum, which offered excellent protection, especially as the legionaries fought in tight formations. These tight formations, while extremely effective, offered limited ability for large weapons to be used. The short-bladed gladius was the perfect accompaniment.A reproduction of a Late Roman (4th century) spatha, made by Deepeeka, India. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLooser formations, and those who used guerilla tactics in warfare, were able to wield much longer swords. The Roman auxiliaries, drawn from various parts of the empire, fought with their own styles, and with longer blades. And as the Romans relied more on auxiliaries to meet its military needs, the gladius became less common. However, from the gladius evolved the spatha which had a much longer blade. The reach afforded by these weapons was better suited in dealing with enemies who also had longer weapons. In addition, the increasing usage of cavalry facilitated the need for longer blades.An interesting fact about the Roman spatha is that while the infantry versions tapered to a sharp point, the cavalry versions had a rounded tip to protect the rider from accidentally stabbing his foot, or his horse.Swords in the Dark AgesViking swords ca. 800 to 1000 CE. Source: Museum of Cultural History of the University of Oslo (UiO Kulturhistorisk Museum)/WolfmannFor much of Europe, the fall of Rome ushered in a time of turbulent change. The period, known as the Dark Ages, was an era of fractured polities, and shifting power struggles. The safety that the Roman Empire offered was gone, and seizing opportunities often meant doing so at spearpoint. Thus, warriors became a vital part of society. The sword was a status symbol, denoting wealth and power, as much as it denoted martial prowess.Europe then, as much as it is now, was not a single place with a homogeneous culture. The swords from this era reflect this reality, and differ greatly in their design. Of great influence, however, was the Roman spatha, and derivatives of this sword appeared across Europe.Germanic peoples adapted the spatha and created ring-swords which were basically spathae with a ring attached to the hilt. Originating from the Merovingian Franks, the Merovingian sword was a direct descendent of the Roman spatha. It had a more well-developed cross-guard, and a grip that evolved over time to become longer to accommodate use as an off-hand weapon.Directly evolving from the Merovingian sword was the Carolingian sword, also known as the Viking sword, although the origin of the sword design lies with the Franks. These swords were prized by the Vikings and many found their way into Viking hands, and Viking graves. So popular was this design, that these swords were found as far away as present-day Kazan in Tatarstan, Russia. From around the 8th century, Frankish smiths sourced high quality steel from Central Asia and produced incredibly well-crafted Carolingian swords that were highly-prized as status symbols. Soldiers at the time, however, were far more likely to be outfitted with spears, lances, and axes.The Development of Swords During the Medieval EraA replica by Albion Swords of the 13th-century Sword of Saint Maurice of Turin. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNorman swords, whose design was derived from the Viking swords, were improvements on their forerunners, and were made with better forging techniques. Impressive as the Norman swords were, they represented a transitional phase of sword design between the Carolingian/Viking swords, and the knightly sword or arming sword that became a popular sight across Europe.With a straight, double-edged blade typically around 28 to 31 inches in length, these swords were symbols of chivalry and status. With their cruciform hilt, they also resembled the cross, and thus Christianity. They saw widespread use by crusaders in the Holy Land. Swords that could be classified as knightly swords were in use from after 1000 CE to around 1500 CE.A falchion from around 1300. Source: Rothenburg Museum / Wolfgang SauberAround this time, a sword called the falchion also saw heavy use. Likely originating in the Northern Italy/Southern France region, these swords came in a variety of shapes, but generally had a slight curve. They were single edged weapons designed for hacking and were popular amongst the common soldiery and the lesser nobility.As effective as these swords were, the evolution of armor demanded the evolution of blades as well. Armor quality improved, and covered more of the soldiers body. In the case of knights and other nobility, full plate covered the entire body. As such, swords designed for hacking and slashing gave way to swords that were designed to find and pierce through the weaker gaps between the major pieces of armor, such as in the armpits, the back of the knees, the neck, or the slits in the helm.From the knightly sword, the longsword (also called a bastard sword or a hand-and-a-half sword) evolved. It was longer and more tapered, and was designed to be used by either one or two hands. It saw much use during the Late Medieval and early Renaissance periods.Swords During the Renaissance and Early Modern PeriodA German rapier. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtThe 16th century saw the development of one of the most effective sword designs in the form of the rapier. The evolution of this long, thrusting blade began in the mid 16th century from the spada da lato (Italian) or side-sword which had, in turn, evolved from the knightly sword or arming sword.The side-sword featured a more intricate hilt with features that facilitated different techniques in handling the weapon, as well as for aesthetic reasons to show off the makers skill and the owners prestige. These features continued to evolve on rapiers, and became increasingly elaborate.Rapiers were popular as civilian weapons, but versions with thicker blades were also present and effective on the battlefields.A Zweihnder. These swords ranged in length from 4.7 to 7 feet. This particular example has an undulating blade and may be referred to as a flamberge, although this term is rather malleable. Source: Walters Art MuseumIn another trend of increasing size and weight, Medieval longswords evolved into Zweihnders or two-handers, which were ominously large blades generally wielded by German mercenary troops known as the Landsknechte. Despite their size, Zweihnders had well-distributed weight, and were surprisingly nimble weapons.Many other heavy swords also evolved for two-handed use. Claymores, for example, evolved from the longsword, and were adapted to the needs of the warriors in the Highlands of Scotland. They first made an appearance in the late 13th century, and the last documented case of their use in battle was at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689.18th, 19th, and 20th Century SwordsA British officers 1796 pattern sabre made by J. Johnston, Sword Cutlers of 8 Newcastle Street, The Strand, London. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOver the 17th century, the rapier evolved into the shorter and lighter smallsword, which was the precursor to modern fencing weapons. And while these weapons found use amongst civilian populations, on the battlefields, musketry replaced bladed weapons for soldiers on foot. The need for blades was fulfilled by the bayonet.On horseback, however, swords found continued use in the form of sabers. These curved blades were influenced by the Hungarian szabla and the Polish karabela which were, in-turn, influenced by the curved blades used by the Turkic people.A ceremonial saber from the United States Marine Corps. Source: Greg BeyerSingle edged, with curved blades, and with significant hand guards, these weapons were perfect for cavalry use and were designed for slashing and thrusting while on horseback. As guns became more effective, however, swords became more obsolete, and by the First World War there was very little call for them.In 1915, the British produced their last cavalry sword. The Pattern 1908 British Cavalry Sword was purely designed for thrusting, and represents the culmination of sword evolution. It is often described as being the most effective cavalry sword ever produced.Sabers, however, are still used in ceremonial contexts in some armies, such as in color parades and as gifts to officers.A re-enactor and his sword. Source: Anastasia Lashkevich / PexelsWhile swords may have disappeared from the real battlefields, there is still a great demand for swords of European designs. Enthusiasts from all over the world create and display swords for decorative purposes, use (blunted) variations on re-enactment battlefields, and wield swords in sport fencing. As such, its still possible to see many of the classic European swords in action!