Modern Thai historiography recognizes four historical capitals of Thailand. The 13th-century kingdom of Sukhothai is regarded as the first independent Thai state. By the mid-14th century, Sukhothai began to be eclipsed by Ayutthaya, a wealthy trading port on the Chao Phraya River. After the sack of Ayutthaya in the 18th century, the Siamese/Thai capital briefly moved downriver to Thonburi on the western bank before arriving at its current home of Bangkok on the opposite bank. So, what were the capitals of Thailand?1. SukhothaiWat Mahathat at Sukhothai Historical Park, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy ChenThe historical city of Sukhothaioriginally named Sukhodaya or dawn of happinesswas an outpost on the periphery of the Khmer Empire. In 1238, local Thai chiefs rebelled against the Khmer governor, and one of them established himself as an independent king known to history as Si Inthrathit. The first king of Sukhothai also ruled over the nearby city of Si Satchanalai.Although usually known as the kingdom of Sukhothai, the polity may be more accurately described as a city-state that exerted varying degrees of political influence and control over its neighbors through tributary relationships. Under the so-called mandala system, the kings power was greatest in the vicinity of Sukhothai, and his authority was less apparent in more distant lands, which may also be in the sphere of influence of other powerful polities.Sukhothai reached its zenith during the reign of King Ramkhamhaeng between 1280 and 1298. The third king of the Phra Ruang Dynasty and youngest son of Si Inthrahit, Ramkhamhaeng is known as the inventor of the Thai script.Ramkhamhaengs exploits are listed on the Ramkhamhaeng Stele, discovered at Sukhothai in 1833 and dated to 1292. The artifact, which is exhibited in the National Museum of Bangkok, indicates that Ramkhamhaengs power extended to the modern-day countries of Laos in the east, Burma in the west, and Kedah in northern Malaysia to the south. Sukhothai also established commercial relations with Yuan Dynasty China during this period.Wat Sa Si at Sukhothai Historical Park, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy ChenWhile the earliest temples at Sukhothai date from the Khmer period, Ramkhamhaeng and his successors expanded the site by building several more temples. During the 14th century, in response to the rise of Ayutthaya, Ramkhamhaengs grandson Lithaiknown by his throne name Maha Thammaracha Iestablished his capital at Phitsanulok while retaining the title of king of Sukhothai. After Ayutthaya sacked Sukhothai in 1378, the old city was abandoned, and its population moved to a new site 10 miles to the east.The extensive ruins of old Sukhothai are now part of Sukhothai Historical Park. The most significant sites are within the old walled city, which also contains the Ramkhamhaeng National Museum. Among the most important temple ruins is Wat Mahathat, the main temple in Sukhothai, which features two large Buddha images on either side of the main chedi (stupa). Wat Si Sawai to the south is distinguished by its three Khmer-style prangs, while Wat Sa Si is attractively situated on an island accessed by a wooden bridge. To the north of the city walls, Wat Phra Phai Luang is the largest temple on the site and was the main religious sanctuary during the Khmer period.Visitors charmed by Sukhothais attractive temple ruins can also visit the nearby sites of Si Satchanalai and Kamphaengphet. The city of Phitsanulok, which superseded Sukhothai and remained an important regional center during the Ayutthaya period, is also home to several impressive monuments, including Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat, founded by King Maha Thammaracha I in 1357, an active temple housing a celebrated Buddha image.2. AyutthayaWat Phra Si Sanphet, Ayutthaya, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy ChenThe city of Ayutthaya was officially founded in 1351, though it is likely to have been older. The city is named after Ayodhya in India, which is most closely associated with Rama, the seventh incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Rama plays a major role in Thai culture, and the kings of Thailand have been closely associated with him over the centuries. The founder of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, U Thong, took the regnal name of Ramathibodi I.Ayutthayas wealth and influence in relation to Sukhothai increased after U Thong established dynastic links to the nearby cities of Suphanburi and Lopburi, while his successors developed commercial relations with Ming China. While the kingdom was vassalized by Burma in the late 16th century, it was liberated in the 1580s by King Naresuan, who is celebrated as one of the greatest kings of Thailand.Ayutthayas wealth reached new heights in the 17th century. In a process beginning with Naresuans brother and successor Ekathotsarot and continuing with King Prasat Thong (1628-1656) and his son Narai (1656-1688), Ayutthaya became a thriving trading entrepot in Southeast Asia, hosting merchants from China, Japan, India, and Persia, as well as Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The citys network of canals was likened to Venice and Amsterdam, and King Narai sent an embassy to Louis XIV at Versailles in 1685.The Aisawan Thiphya Pavillion at Bang Pa-In Palace, Ayutthaya, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy ChenPrasat Thong and Narai used the citys wealth to sponsor the restoration and expansion of temples, even as Narai came to prefer Lopburi during his final years. Ayutthaya declined in the 18th century, culminating in two major Burmese invasions and the sacking of the city in 1767. A new city developed to the east of the old ruins, now designated Ayutthaya Historical Park.Major sites in the historical park include Wat Mahathat, an important royal monastery best known for a Buddha head embedded into the roots of a tree. Further to the west, in the old palace complex, Wat Phra Si Sanphet is known for its three tall chedis, which contain the ashes of three kings of Ayutthaya.In addition to the ruined temples of Ayutthaya Historical Park, visitors to the city can go to several museums dedicated to the foreign merchant communities in Ayutthaya. This includes the archaeological site of the Portuguese settlement on the western bank of the Chao Phraya, the Japanese village on the opposite bank, and a two-story house known as Baan Hollanda on the site of the Dutch trading post.Bang Pa-In Royal Palace, just over 10 miles downstream from Ayutthaya, was founded by Prasat Thong in 1632. The palace fell into disuse until King Mongkut (Rama IV) revived it in the 19th century. Most of the buildings date from the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V).While Ayutthaya is a popular day trip for tourists in Bangkok, the former Siamese capital can also serve as a base for visits to nearby cities, including Lopburi, known for Narais Palace, Khmer-style temples, and a large population of feral monkeys.3. ThonburiStatue of King Taksin at Rajabhakti Park, Hua Hin, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2020. Source: Jimmy ChenAlthough the kingdom of Thonburi lasted only 15 years, it is associated with one of the most important kings in Thai history. King Taksin of Thonburi was a talented military leader who, from his base at Thonburi on the western bank of the Chao Phraya River, reunited Siam after the fall of Ayutthaya. He also expelled the Burmese garrison from the old capital and defeated repeated Burmese invasions.In addition to being a successful military leader, Taksin was a political reformer who aimed to revitalize the economy by subsidizing farmers and reviving trade and diplomatic relations with China. As a result, Thonburi was home to a large community of Chinese merchants. However, by the early 1780s, Taksin was showing signs of insanity and behaved arbitrarily. He was removed from power in a coup and subsequently executed by his friend and commander-in-chief, who founded the Chakri Dynasty as Rama I. The new king moved the capital to the opposite bank of Chao Phraya to what is now Bangkok.Catholic Church of Santa Cruz in Thonburi, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2020. Source: Jimmy ChenThonburi is now a district of Bangkok. While King Taksins Palace at Thonburi remains standing, it is used by the Royal Thai Navy and is rarely open to the public. The adjacent Wat Arun, or Temple of Dawn, is the most popular tourist attraction on the western bank of the Chao Phraya. The first temple on the site was founded in the 17th century and was originally called Wat Bang Makok after an existing village, which may have inspired the name Bangkok. The temples iconic central prang, decorated in colorful porcelain tiles, dates to the mid-19th century.Thonburi continues to be home to a large Chinese community descended from the merchants who settled there during King Taksins reign, and there are multiple Chinese shrines in the area. Thonburi is also home to the Catholic Church of Santa Cruz. While the current structure was built in the early 20th century, the first church on the site was founded in 1770 by Taksin for the Portuguese community. It served as the main Catholic church in Bangkok until the completion of the Assumption Cathedral in 1821.Further to the south, a large equestrian statue of King Taksin stands on a tall plinth in the middle of a large roundabout named Wongwian Yai (a name that literally translates to Big Roundabout). While the intersection was built in 1932 in conjunction with the construction of the Rama I bridge to mark the 150th anniversary of the Chakri Dynasty, the monument was added two decades later in 1953.4. BangkokThe Temple of the Emerald Buddha in the Grand Palace, Bangkok, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2018. Source: Jimmy ChenThe current capital of Thailand was founded in 1782 by King Rama I, who recognized that the eastern bank of the Chao Phrayaprotected on three sides by the rivers meanderwas more defensible than Thonburi. While the land was marshy, the site was drained, and a system of canals was built to offer further protection on the eastern side, creating an artificial island known as Rattanakosin Island.While the city is known internationally as Bangkok, this has never been its official name in Thai. As part of his efforts to emphasize continuity with Ayutthaya, Rama I gave his capital the same ceremonial name as Ayutthaya: Krung Thep Maha Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. The current ceremonial name was adopted during the reign of King Mongkut (1851-1868) and holds the Guinness World Record for the longest city name in the world at 168 letters. The citys residents usually call their home Krung Thep, or City of Angels.At the center of Rama Is new capital is the Grand Palace, which continues to be the official residence of the kings of Thailand. The palace complex contains the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, named after a small and highly venerated Buddha image originally from Chiang Rai that Rama I captured from Vientiane during the 1770s. The perimeter walls of the temple are decorated with scenes from the Ramakien, the Thai national epic following the life of Rama.Another important temple in Bangkok is Wat Pho, located just south of the Grand Palace. The temple dates back to the Ayutthaya period and was refurbished and upgraded during the reign of Rama I, who brought many Buddha images from Sukhothai and Ayutthaya. The temple was further expanded during the reign of Rama III (1824-1851), who built a new hall to house one of Thailands largest reclining Buddha images. Due to this, the temple is usually known in English as the Temple of the Reclining Buddha.The Reclining Buddha in Wat Pho, Bangkok, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy ChenThe city expanded rapidly during the 19th century as trade with China increased during the reign of Rama III. A large community of Chinese merchants established roots in the district of Sampheng, still recognized as Bangkoks Chinatown. The citys development accelerated after the Bowring Treaty of 1855 removed trade barriers and encouraged foreign investment. In the early 1860s, the reforming King Mongkut ordered the construction of Charoenkrung Road, the first paved road in the city, to connect the commercial district with Wat Pho.In the final years of the 19th century, King Chulalongkorn recognized that the Grand Palace in the city center was no longer capable of accommodating the court and state administration. Thus, he built a new palace complex at Dusit, which was connected to the city center by the three sections of Ratchadamnoen Avenue.The striking Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall, commissioned by Chulalongkorn in 1908, was built in an Italianate style with Carrara marble and inaugurated during the reign of his son Vajiravudh (Rama VI) in 1915. Chitralada Royal Villa, built by Rama VI in 1913, served as the primary residence of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) throughout his 70-year reign (1946-2016).The early 20th century saw the completion of the railway terminus at Hua Lamphong in 1916 and the establishment of the Don Mueang Airfield in 1914. Don Mueang opened to passenger traffic in 1924, making it one of the worlds oldest commercial airports. Hua Lamphong remained the citys main rail hub until the opening of the Krung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminal in 2023, while Don Mueang continues to be an important domestic and regional hub for budget airlines after the opening of Suvarnabhumi Airport in 2006.The Italianate Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at Dusit Palace, Bangkok, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy ChenBangkok has been the scene of many political upheavals in the 20th century. The Revolution of 1932 that led to the abolition of the absolute monarchy is commemorated by the Democracy Monument, inaugurated on Ratchadamnoen Avenue in 1940. A popular uprising in October 1973 led to the deaths of over 70 protestors, the fall of Thanom Kittikachorns military dictatorship, and a brief restoration of democratic government. General Thanoms return in October 1976 prompted renewed demonstrations, leading to the massacre of students and left-wing protestors at Thammasat University and the return to military rule. The most recent wave of protests took place in 2020-2021 after Prayut Chan-o-Chas government banned the liberal Future Forward Party.While Bangkok was subject to Allied bombing raids during the Second World War, it was rebuilt and modernized rapidly as Thailand became a key American ally in Southeast Asia during the Cold War. During the Vietnam War, Bangkok became the favored destination for American soldiers rotated out of frontline service. In the 21st century, Bangkok is a vibrant city with glass skyscrapers towering over old temples.In 2024, Bangkok welcomed 32 million international visitors, making it the most popular city destination in the world. Visitor attractions close to the city include the Erawan Museum, located within a large sculpture of Erawan, the mythical three-headed elephant, and Mueang Boran or the Ancient City, a historical park that brings together replicas of famous architectural monuments as well as original historic houses from across the country.