Charles, Duke of Burgundy, King of Spain, and Holy Roman Emperor: could this man become a universal monarch and claim the legacy of Charlemagne? Could he retain control of the Old World European realms while expanding his power in the New World of the Americas?An Expansive InheritanceCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Early to Mid-16th-century CE. Source: New York Public Library, New York CityThe man known to history as Charles V inherited his titles and realms from his ancestors. Born in Ghent in 1500, Charles father was Duke Philip IV (Philip the Fair) of Burgundy, the eldest son and heir of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, who personally controlled the Habsburg lands in Austria and southwest Germany. When Maximilians wife Mary of Burgundy died in 1482, he laid claim to the wealthy Low Countries.Charles mother, Juana of Spain, was the daughter of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castille, whose marriage led to the union of the two principal Spanish crowns. Accordingly, after Ferdinands death in 1516 Charles became king of Spain, taking over territories in Europe as well as the Americas.Spanish Kingdoms under Charles V, Freemans Historical Geography, 1903. Source: University of Texas, AustinAfter Charles became King of Spain, most of his ministers counselled against seeking the imperial title, left vacant by his grandfather Maximilians death in 1519. They were afraid that Charless election as emperor would stretch him too thin and bring more harm and good to his myriad kingdoms (Parker, p. 96).The seven prince electors of the Holy Roman Empire confirmed the 19-year-old as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519. He paid the imperial electors one million florins and annual pension guarantees to secure their votes. His payments prevented a challenge by the King of France, Francis I.Although the new emperor had less power in the empire than the English or French monarchs in their own realms, Charles could access unparalleled military and financial resources. The imperial title also brought great status and political influence as successor to both Charlemagne and the Roman emperors (Lieven, p. 181).Charles Vision of the Universal MonarchCharles V, Crowned Emperor, entering Rome with the Pope, from the Triumphs of Charles V, Cornelis Boel, 1614. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkCharles saw himself as the second sword of the Christian Commonwealth, serving alongside the Vicar of Christ, the Pope. Charles also envisioned leading the community of Christian princes on a crusade that would end the Ottoman threat and liberate the Holy Land. Meanwhile, in his domestic policy, he would defend the unity of the Christian community and the doctrines bequeathed by the Gospel and the great ecumenical councils that had steered the Catholic Church since the fourth century.On October 26, 1520, Charles, like his namesake and role model, Charlemagne, made a ceremonial entry into Aachen. After venerating the golden reliquary containing Charlemagnes skull, Charles entered the Cathedral and prostrated himself on the ground with his arms outstretched. Then, Charles, wearing the Imperial regalia, was anointed and invested with the imperial sword, scepter, orb, and Crown and seated upon Charlemagnes throne.This spectacle increased his power and entrenched Charles as the universal monarch in Charlemagnes image. The ceremony ended with a proclamation that the pope, having approved the election of Charles the Fifth, orders that henceforth he must take the title emperor (Parker, p. 116). At that time, however, he was only King of Germany, and while he swore his oath as Holy Roman Emperor, it was not until 1530 that Pope Clement VII formally crowned him emperor after Charles armies sacked Rome in 1527.European WarsBattle of Pavia Tapestries. Artist: Bernard van Orley, Weavers: Willem and Jan Dermoyen, 1531. Source: Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TexasCharles inherited a series of political rivalries in Europe as Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. He spent much of his reign at war with King Francis I of France, whom he captured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, but fighting between France and the Holy Roman Empire continued for more than two decades. Charles established the first modern professional army in Europe, with the elite Spanish tercios at the core of his standing army.Another major foe was Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, whose Ottoman Empire expanded into the Mediterranean and Hungary. Though imperial forces halted Ottoman expansion into Europe at the Siege of Vienna in 1529, there were few successes in the Mediterranean. After Charles V captured Tunis from the Ottomans in 1535, Suleiman allied with France to prevent Charles making further progress in North Africa.Charles claims to be the universal Christian monarch were not only challenged by the French, but by the Protestant Reformation. While Charles was prepared to introduce some moderate reforms, he defended the Catholic Church from attacks by Martin Luther. In 1531, a group of Protestant Princes formed the Schmalkaldic League to resist Charles on political and religious grounds. Although Charles won a victory at the Battle of Mhlberg in 1547, the war continued until the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, in which Charles allowed his vassals to choose their own religion.The New World: Religious and Economic PolicyHernn Corts, 19th century print. Source: New York Public Library, New York CityThe Conquistadors aggressive claims of land in the New World brought political power and cultural influence to Spain (Kamen, pg. 50). Each conquest expanded Charless empire. Hernan Corts invasion of the Aztecs in 1519 added Mexico or New Spain to the Empire. In 1522, Charles created a special committee of trusted ministers, chaired by Gattinara, to consider the rival claims of Corts and Diego Velzquez, Governor of Cuba, about control of the Mexican interior regions.A decade later, Francisco Pizarros 1532 conquest of the Incas included control of New Castile or Peru. Charles was willing to acknowledge Corts and the Pizarro brothers for their services in establishing the colonies, but he was ruthless in disciplining them. He marginalized them to acquire permanent access to the colonial resources to fund his dynastic goals in Europe (Parker, p. 527).While Charles V intended to spread Christianity in the New World, his advisors and the lesser nobility were focused on exploiting the natural resources of the colonies. Adventurers, settlers, and aspiring government officials were eager to share profits from the closely controlled gold and silver trade funneled through the port of Seville.During Charles reign, the amount of gold mined in the Americas increased from 40,000 ducats throughout the 1520s to approximately 900,000 over the course of the 1550s. Charles struggled to balance his duty to protect his new subjects while exploiting them and their lands to support his expensive wars and profit his growing empire.The New World: Treatment of Indigenous PeopleSpanish and Portuguese colonial empires in the 16th century. Map from F. W. Putzgers Historical School Atlas of Old, Middle and New History, 1903. Source: Boston Public Library, BostonPrevious rulers, such as Queen Isabella, had prohibited slavery in the colonies. Settlers controlled the native population under the encomienda system. The encomiendas holder took 80% of the profits from his territory. The remaining 20%, the royal fifth, belonged to the Emperor. The holder also used the indigenous people as farm laborers, miners, and craftsmen. In return, the holder agreed to provide Christian education, military protection, housing, and food.Charles asked the encomienda leaders to use force sparingly and cultivate positive relationships with local populations. Yet many settlers forced the locals to do back-breaking labor, withheld food from them, and punished them excessively, according to the Council of the Indies in 1526.While Charles limited the number of workers to 300 for each encomienda, most exceeded the limits by thousands. Entire families lived on the encomienda to work the lands without receiving any education, religious or otherwise.At the Potos Silver Mine in Bolivia, thousands of workers suffered and died from mercury poisoning during the 1540s, one of the most profitable periods for the Spanish coffers.Woodblock print of Potosi hill. Source: Library of CongressIn November 1527, the Emperor established an Audiencia in Mexico City, an appeals court with a president and five judges answering directly to the Council of the Indies. Unfortunately for Charles, the judges took a year to reach the New World; two died soon after they arrived, and choosing a president took even longer (Parker, p. 352).When Bartolome de las Casas, a Dominican priest, documented the cruelty in A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, Charles proposed the New Laws of 1542 that prevented slavery and stopped encomienda owners from passing their lands to heirs after their deaths. The settlers struck back with protests and riots to force Charles to make concessions. The New Laws were partially revoked in 1546.AbdicationThe Victories of Emperor Charles V. Engraving by Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, 1555. Source: British MuseumCharles V was the dominant European statesman of his time and controlled New World colonial expansion, driven by the amazing riches and promise of the Americas (Thomas, p. 27). The diverse nature of his empire increased his need to improvise. As Helmut G. Koenisberger observed in 1958 (the fourth centenary of the Emperors death), Charles was no Alexander or Napoleon who had conquered his empire, but the hereditary and legitimate ruler of each of his states whose laws and customs he had sworn to maintain (Parker, p. 517).Charles vision of a universal empire did not become a reality. The Protestant Reformation split the Catholic empire, and continuing conflict with France prevented a unified Europe. The New World colonies presented unique governing challenges and moral dilemmas. Charlesenergy and physical health declined as the stresses of managing his enormous empire increased.After ruling his vast empire for over three decades, the 56-year-old Charles V abdicated from his thrones in 1555-1556 and reluctantly split his realm between two branches of the Habsburg family. His son, Philip II, inherited the Spanish Empire, the Netherlands, and Italy, while his brother Ferdinand inherited the Habsburg hereditary lands in central Europe and became Holy Roman Emperor. Charles retired to the Monastery of Yuste and died in 1558.BibliographyBohnstedt, J.(1968): The Infidel Scourge of God: The Turkish Menace as Seen by German Pamphleteers of the Reformation Era, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 58, no. 9 (1968): 19.Kamen, H. (2004). Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763. Perennial.Lieven, D. (2022). In the Shadow of the Gods: The Emperor in World History. Viking.Parker, G. (2019). Emperor: A New Life of Charles V. Yale University Press.Thomas, H. (2011). The Golden Age: The Spanish Empire of Charles V. Penguin Books.