Maximilien Robespierre is a complex historical figure associated with the French Revolutions Reign of Terror.Although he took a leading role in France, making decisions that resulted in the Reign of Terror that culminated in the execution of tens of thousands, Robespierre was also an enlightened figure known for his progressive views.Reconciling these aspects in a single human being demands great interrogation and understanding of who Robespierre actually was, what he stood for, and what he believed.Maximilien Robespierres Early LifeHistorical transport in Arras in northern France. Source: Encyclopaedia BritannicaBorn on May 6, 1758 in Arras in northern France, Maximilien Franois Marie Isidore de Robespierre was the eldest of four children born to a barrister, Franois Maximilien Barthlmy de Robespierre, and the daughter of a brewer, Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault.He had two sisters, Charlotte and Henriette, and a younger brother, Augustin. His mother died on July 16, 1764 while in labor. The birth was stillborn. Maximilien had a close emotional bond with his mother, and according to the writings of Charlotte, he could not think of her without tears in his eyes. Around three years later, Maximiliens father left for reasons unknown and placed the care of his children in the hands of relatives. Maximilien and Augustin were thereafter raised by their mothers parents.At an early age, Maximilien showed an aptitude for academic pursuits. At the age of eight, he was enrolled in Arras College, and at the age of just 11, he secured a scholarship to study at the renowned Collge Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Here, he was influenced by the works of Jacques Rousseau and showed significant interest in the ideologies of the Roman Republic.A Career in LawOpening of the Estates-General on May 5, 1789 by Stanislas Helman and Charles Monnet. Source: Creative Commons, Store Norske LeksikonRobespierre studied law at the Sorbonne and graduated in 1780, after which he was admitted to the bar. His academic brilliance had earned him a decent reputation, and in 1782, he was appointed as one of five judges in a local criminal court.He resigned from this post due to an ethical dilemma adjudicating capital crimes. During this time, Robespierre was vehemently against the death penalty. He opened a private practice and became known for representing the rights of poor people.He earned a reputation for living an ascetic lifestyle with little interest in indulging in food and drink. However, he dressed well and always took great care with his appearance. Even during the revolution, when French politicians adopted a more relaxed look, Robespierre stuck to his powdered wigs, tailored clothes, and stockings. According to his sister, Charlotte, her brother was a deeply reserved person.In November 1783, Robespierre was admitted to the literary Arras Academy, where he penned works attacking Frances absolutist monarchy and arbitrary justice. Given his social standing, this penchant for altruism alarmed the privileged classes, who began to view Robespierre as a threat.Robespierre Moves Into PoliticsLiberty Leading the People by Eugne Delacroix, 1830. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobespierre quickly garnered support from the poorer classes. In 1789, the citizens of Arras chose him to be a representative in the Estates-General, the General Assembly, which had last been called in 1614. He was the fifth of eight deputies from the region of Artois. Thus, Robespierre began a political career at the age of 30.Reluctant to call the assembly, King Louis XVI finally decided it was necessary to address Frances huge financial woes, which had resulted from France investing vast sums of money into supporting the Americans and defeating the British during the American War of Independence.The winds of change, however, were blowing strong throughout France, and the anti-monarchist sentiment that had been growing significantly since 1787 turned into a revolution.On June 6, Robespierre delivered his first speech in the Estates-General. He attacked the hierarchical structure of the Church and drew widespread commentary from both sides of the ideological divide. He was noted as being eloquent but was soft-spoken. He was not imposing in any sense, and he had facial tics. Nevertheless, Robespierres words were received in quantity and fell on the ears of many who agreed with his sentiments. He would align himself with a large body of politicians calling themselves the National Assembly, which claimed to represent 96% of Frances population.Louis XVI, King of France and Navarre, wearing his grand royal costume in 1779 by Antoine-Franois Callet. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNaturally, the king feared the power of the National Assembly, which wanted to reform the government and create a constitution. Louis tried to sabotage the National Assembly and stop its members from meeting.On July 14, 1789, unrest in the capital had reached a point where it could no longer be contained. French citizens wanted change and took up arms against the monarchy. The storming of the Bastille and the Htel des Invalides in support of the National Constituent Assembly (formerly the National Assembly) is considered the start of the French Revolution. Paris was in the hands of the revolutionaries, and the king became a de facto prisoner.The monarchy, however, was not disbanded, and King Louis XVI remained king while the National Constituent Assembly ran the country and debated on what to do with the king.Rise to PowerPortrait of Robespierre by an unknown artist. Source: Den Store Danske via Muse Carnavalet, ParisRobespierre was a prolific orator who gave nearly one thousand speeches in the span of just five years. However, these speeches did not always go over well with many of his peers. He was seen as too radical and prevented from achieving significant executive power.The distrust of his peers mattered little to him, however. His speeches to the gallery earned him huge respect from the crowds of commoners who came to listen. It was this dynamic that took Robespierre to the heights of French revolutionary governance.Robespierre also gained friends and allies as a member of the Jacobin Club, a political society of revolutionaries that discussed events and agendas. He was dedicated to universal suffrage, and on March 31, 1790, Robespierre was elected president of this club.The Jacobin club had received its name as a result of its meetings being held in a former convent run by the Dominicans, whom Parisians referred to as Jacobins. Hugely popular, the Jacobin Club swelled in numbers, achieving an estimated total of half a million members and 7,000 chapters throughout France.Around this time, according to his sister Charlotte, Robespierre began courting Eleanore Duplay, a cabinetmakers daughter. Robespierre was lodging at their house at the time. He had had other love interests before but never married. He would remain so, as for him, political life took over any attempt at being a husband and a father.Seal of the Jacobin Club from 1792 to 1794. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn December, Robespierre coined the term Libert, galit, fraternit (liberty, equality, fraternity), which serves as Frances motto today.Throughout 1791 and 1792, Robespierre continued campaigning for the equality of all French people, including those of color. Before the Constituent Assembly was dissolved and a new Legislative Assembly was formed, Robespierre was a key figure in drafting a law that prohibited deputies of the former from becoming members of the latter.This was done in order to end the ambitions of old members trying to reform France into a constitutional monarchy. The move also prevented Robespierre from taking a seat in the new government. This move furthered Robespierres reputation as being selfless and incorruptible.The Fate of Louis XVIReturn to Varennes by Jean Duplessis-Bertaux and Jean-Louis Prieur. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe king was well aware of the danger he was in. France was becoming increasingly radicalized against the monarchy, and he was powerless to stop it. Fearing the worst, he, along with his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, and their children, attempted to flee Paris on the night of June 21/22.The Flight to Varennes, as it became known, was a failure. He and his family were arrested and returned to Paris. Their situation became even more dire as the king had earned the distrust of many powerful men controlling France.Within the Jacobin Club, the revolutionary movement split, with two powerful factions waging a battle of words for their respective ideologies. On one side were those who wanted to establish a constitutional monarchy, preserving the king but limiting his power, which had been absolute. Those who supported this idea took their cues from the dynamic in England whereby the kings authority had been curtailed. On the other side were those who wanted to do away with the monarchy and establish a republic in its place.With the kings attempted flight and arrest, the latter ideology became far more powerful as it gained new adherents. Robespierre made his own position clear: he was not in favor of completely deposing the monarch but severely limiting his power, claiming that France was both a republic and a monarchy.Marie Antoinette, Queen of France by Jean-Baptiste-Isabey, 1783. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAfter a new constitution was accepted, which the king was forced to sign, European powers became increasingly wary of Frances revolutionary fervor spreading to their own countries. Several states decided to take action against the rising surge of these ideas and threatened to invade France if King Louis was harmed.On August 27, 1791, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring concern for the French monarchy and threatening vague but severe consequences for the French revolutionaries.In April of the following year, the Assembly responded by voting to declare war on Austria. However, the Revolution had sapped the strength of the French military, which was completely disorganized. In response, an alliance of states prepared to invade France.Leading this alliance of Austrians, Prussians, and French migrs was Charles William Ferdinand, the Duke of Brunswick, who issued the Brunswick Manifesto, warning of dire consequences for any Frenchman who opposed the alliances forces.The campaign, however, went poorly for the alliance, and the war dragged on. Meanwhile, Louis XVI was put on trial. Although Robespierre was against capital punishment, he argued in favor of executing the monarch, stating that Louis must die that the country may live.On January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was sent to the guillotine. On October 16, his wife, Marie Antoinette, received the same fate.Taking the Reins of PowerVive La Montagne by tienne Bricourt. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite the Revolutions successes and Louis XVIs death, France still had a significant number of powerful royalists. The French government was under the control of a political group called the Girondins, who had campaigned for the end of the monarchy but also sought to limit the Revolutions spiraling momentum. Under their rule, France was also suffering foreign invasions and royalist uprisings.Between the end of May and the beginning of June 1793, Robespierre expelled the Girondists from the government with support from the Commune of Paris. Robespierre was subsequently elected as one of the 12 members of the Committee of Public Safety within the National Convention, the latest incarnation of the assembly governing France.Robespierre was the most powerful representative of the faction known as the Montagnards (the Mountainists), who sat on the upper benches of the National Convention. They were more left-leaning and more radical than the Girondins whom they replaced.Following the Girondins expulsion, the Montagnards took power and began a series of violent reprisals known as the Reign of Terror.The Reign of TerrorJaques Ren Hbert by Edme Bovinet after Franois Bonneville. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWith France in turmoil, Robespierre, with the committees support, pursued a hardline course of action. Those who did not support the Revolution were purged all over France. The Reign of Terror had begun, and Robespierre, as head of the Committee of Public Safety, exercised near-dictatorial control of the government.Devoted to his interpretation of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus philosophy, Robespierre forced the National Convention to proclaim The Cult of the Supreme Being as the official religion of France. This was in accordance with Rousseaus theory of Deism, which rejected traditional Christian mores and argued in favor of rational morality. As such, the Catholic Church was stripped of its authority, and priests became targeted as enemies of the Revolution.The latter half of 1793 and the first half of 1794 were a time of great bloodletting in France as the revolutionary government secured its position. Even revolutionary leaders werent safe. Jacques Ren Hbert was a radical leader of the Hbertist sect within the government. He attacked those who he thought were too moderate, including Robespierre. Ironically, the government moved against Hbert, and he was put on trial and executed.Executions in 1793. Source: Paris MusesThe same fate befell Georges Jacques Danton, who had been a prominent leader in overthrowing the monarchy. He was accused of having royal inclinations and of being engaged in conspiracy against the government, as well as venality, before being executed.Tribunals were set up to try the thousands of people accused of being against the revolution. Officially, 16,594 people were executed after trial, while another 10,000 died in prison. Tens of thousands of others were killed in massacres across the country.Trials were quick and did not allow witnesses. They were ultimately nothing more than announcements of death sentences.It is estimated that between September 1793 and July 1794, around 30,000 to 50,000 people were killed.Robespierres Downfall & DeathRobespierre going to the guillotine by Alfred Mouillard, 1884. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobespierres actions did not endear him to many within the government. Fearing for their own lives if the situation continued, a conspiracy began to take shape as powerful government members joined together to overthrow their rogue colleague.At this time, Robespierre was also losing the support of the people who had expected their lives to improve under his reign. Despite French victories against enemies in the rest of Europe, France was still in turmoil, and the lot of the commoners had not improved.His base of support evaporated as the right regarded him as a failed dictator, and the left viewed him as being too moderate.On July 27, 1794, Robespierres enemies took the opportunity to bar him from speaking at the National Convention. They detained him and took him to Luxembourg prison in Paris where he found support from the warden who refused to imprison him.Along with soldiers loyal to the Commune of Paris, Robespierre made his way to the Htel de Ville. After refusing to lead an insurrection, his armed supporters began to disperse.The death mask of Maximilien Robespierre. Source: Princeton UniversityWhen the National Convention learned that Robespierre had not been arrested, its members declared Robespierre an outlaw, and armed forces were sent to capture him. They entered the hotel, and fighting broke out. It is unclear exactly how Robespierre received a gunshot wound to his face. In one version of the account, he tried to commit suicide, while in another version, he was shot by an officer named Charles-Andr Meda. Whichever version of the events is true, Robespierre was taken into custody with a shattered jaw. His associates with him at the time were also taken into custody.In the early hours of the morning of July 28, Robespierre was sentenced to death. He was taken to the scaffold, and his head was placed on the guillotine. The executioner ripped off the bandage that was holding his jaw in place, and Robespierre screamed until the blade descended and ended his life.In total, 102 people were executed for being complicit in Robespierres escape and defense.Robespierres LegacyPortrait of Robespierre by H. Lefvre. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobespierre is a complex figure for historians. Although he opposed capital punishment, thousands died as a result of his ordinances. He seemed willing to tolerate this dynamic if it was necessary to defend his vision of an ideal society.From one perspective, he was a hero who led a revolutionary movement that gave power to the people of France, toppling the ancien rgime and ushering in a new era of equality. From another perspective, he was a tyrannical leader with the blood of thousands on his hands.Whatever the case, Robespierre certainly left his mark on history.