William Wallace is one of the most legendary heroes of Scottish history. Wallace is known to all as Braveheart, the freedom fighter who defied the English tyrant Edward I and died horrifically for his countrys freedom. Yet so much of Wallaces life has been obscured by myth and popular reimagining. Equally, these myths have obscured the military strategies and innovations employed by Wallace and those who came after him to eventually free Scotland from English tyranny.The Mystery of William WallaceThe Wallace Sword at the Wallace Monument in Stirling. Though claimed to be Wallaces own sword, much of the weapon was made a century after his death, except part of the blade. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn Scotlands darkest hour, William Wallace appeared like an avenging angel to save her from the English, a man of the people who was murdered by the tyrant Edward I but inspired his countrymen to reclaim their freedom. Naturally, Wallaces actual life is not so simple, nor in fairness are most of the legends told of him. However, Wallaces origins and actual life story have become so obscured, and so many stories and legends have been written about him, that the folklore has become engrained into his story.This is no better shown than in the notorious 1995 film Braveheart, famous for sacrificing historical authenticity for romanticized fiction. Yet even one of the earliest sources about Wallace, a 15th-century poem named The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie, suffered from this obfuscation of history. Its author, a monk known as Blind Harry, heavily glamorized Wallaces story, inventing characters in his life and occasionally attributing the deeds of others to Wallace.Separating the folklore from William Wallace to learn the true story of the man is a fascinating venture. Yet equally fascinating is understanding exactly how Wallace succeeded against formidable odds and equally how he met his eventual demise. The legends often depict Wallace as a superhero who won battles through his sheer might alone, often overlooking the strategies Wallace and his other freedom fighters used. The military campaigns of Wallace, their origins, strengths, weaknesses, and eventual success, deserve greater recognition.How was it that Wallace was able to defeat the English who had swept aside all previous opposition? How was he able to unite the Scottish against the English and use their strengths to succeed? How did the English respond, and finally, to what extent did Wallaces actions truly save his country?Origin and UprisingWallaces seal was attached to a letter written to the city of Lubek in the Holy Roman Empire. The seal depicts a drawn bow and arrow surrounded by the caption William, son of Alan Wallace. Source: Scottish Archives for SchoolsWilliam Wallace was born around 1270 into a minor noble family but not a great Scottish aristocratic house. Interestingly, the surname Wallace suggests his family may have originally been from Wales or the ancient Brittonic kingdom of Strathclyde. His seal suggests some military connection before his uprising, possibly as a mercenary in Wales in 1294-95. It has also been suggested that he might have been about to join the church or possibly been in trouble with the law. Whatever his origin, Wallaces life changed completely in 1296.In 1292, after the last king of Scotland died heirless, the governing regents, known as the Guardians of Scotland, invited Edward I of England to help decide the next king. Edward chose a man named John Balliol but also declared himself Balliols overlord and began intervening in Scottish affairs. John and his supporters became sick of Edwards meddling and declared war in 1296.Edward, supported by Scottish nobles opposed to John, invaded and crushed Johns resistance. However, Edward then forced English law, garrisons, and officials onto Scotland, alienating his noble allies and angering the common people. Soon, uprisings blazed across Scotland against the greed and corruption of the occupying English.John Balliol and his wife, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWallace was not the first rebel, but he would become the most famous. In May 1297, in Lanark, a confrontation occurred between Wallace and the local English sheriff, William Heselrig. Later the same day, Wallace gathered a party of supporters and ambushed and slaughtered the English garrison.Wallace, quickly levying armed support, suggests he was already an influential figure and may, as blind Harry suggests, have already been causing the English trouble. Either way, Wallace was now a bona fide rebel leader, attacking the English alongside other rebels, most notably Lord William of Douglas. Wallace soon saw great success, thanks in part to his style of combat.Most battles at the time were decided by the heavily armed, mounted warriors of the nobility. The non-aristocratic folk of Scotland, however, were expert light infantry and horsemen thanks to centuries of clan feuds, cattle raids, and other skirmishes. Travelling light and easy over difficult terrain, they would suddenly strike their enemies before vanishing back into their hills and forests. Wallace turned these men into guerilla warriors, waging a brutal but brilliant campaign of asymmetric hit-and-run warfare against the English occupiers.The Battle of Stirling BridgeStatue of Wallace outside the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. Source: GeographOver the summer of 1297, Wallace wrought havoc on the English in central Scotland, while another rebel leader, Andrew of Moray, led a similar uprising in the North and Highlands. They were not alone, though, as soon members of the Scottish aristocracy, previously forced to pledge homage to Edward after his invasion, renounced their homage and joined the rebellion. In fact, Blind Harry and other sources attributed certain events to Wallace that later evidence suggests were undertaken by other rebels. The Scottish nobles, however, were plagued by internal rivalries and lacked coherent leadership.When the English governors of Scotland marched an army to quell the uprisings in June, most of the nobles, including Lord Douglas, capitulated. Undeterred, Wallace and Moray continued their guerilla campaigns against the English and their noble puppets. Soon, the two rebel leaders decided to join forces and meet the English army, now bolstered by the levies of the Scottish nobles, near Stirling on the River Forth.The English had every right to feel confident as they began crossing the bridge at Stirling to confront the rebels on September 11, 1297. They outnumbered the rebels, and their knights and famous longbowmen had overcome all Scottish opposition in open battle. Yet Wallace and Moray, waiting unseen on the other side of the river, had a plan. When around half the English had crossed the bridge, the rebels fell upon them, trapping the English in a bottleneck and blocking off reinforcements coming over the bridge.Stirling Bridge. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe English knights and archers were unable to fight effectively as the rebels advanced, likely in the new Schiltron formation: a dense phalanx of spears that pinned the English onto the banks of the River Forth. Meanwhile, the Scottish nobles turned their coats once again and attacked the English baggage train and reserves. The English were slaughtered, drowned, or fled. The most gruesome fate befell the English treasurer of Scotland, Hugh De Cressingham, who, many sources record, was flayed alive in revenge for his corrupt exploitation of Scotland, with his skin becoming Wallaces sword belt.Gruesome leatherworking aside, the Battle of Stirling was a tactical masterstroke that changed the course of the war. Wallace and Moray had defeated a full English army in open battle for the first time: Scotland could take on their occupiers and win. Wallace then pursued the retreating English over the border, plundering England as far south as Newcastle and returning with their loot to rebuild Scotlands administration. In the absence of the still exiled John Balliol, new Guardians of Scotland had to be appointedand who better to choose than the victors of Stirling Bridge?Guardian of Scotland and FalkirkThe Wallace Monument, a tower built in the 19th century on a hill overlooking Stirling celebrating Wallaces life and victories. Source: GeographIn December 1297, at the romantically named Kirk o the Forrest in Selkirk, Wallace was knighted and made Guardian of Scotland alongside Andrew Moray. Tragically, Andrew succumbed to injuries he sustained at Stirling in November, but Wallace continued as sole Guardian, setting up Scottish governance and pursuing international trade treaties.In barely six months, Wallace went from a nobody to a legendary freedom fighter and one of the most powerful men in Scotlandbut there was good reason for this sudden elevation. Alongside his military success, Wallaces relatively common birth meant he was involved in none of the internal rivalries of the great noble houses, making him the ideal figurehead for Scottish independence. Likewise, his lack of nobility endeared him to the common people as he was unsullied by the disastrous campaigns of John Balliol and had never pledged homage to King Edward I.Speaking of whom, Edward, away in France during the debacle at Stirling, had returned to Scotland in April 1298 with a massive army and a thirst for payback. Wallace wisely decided against facing Edwards wrath head-on as the English king stormed northwards. Instead, he baited Edward into pursuing him while scorching the earth before the English and making them exhaust their supplies. However, just as it seemed that Edward would be forced to retreat or starve, he managed to locate Wallace and force him into a pitched battle near Falkirk on July 22.The charge of Antony Bek, Bishop of Durham, at the Battle of Falkirk, 1873. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWallace tried to make the best of a bad situation, deploying his men in Schiltrons on good defensive ground, supported by archers and Scottish noble knights to withstand the charge of the English heavy cavalry. Unfortunately, though they fought hard (contrary to Mel Gibsons allegations), the numerically inferior Scottish knights were eventually overwhelmed and routed alongside the archers by the English cavalry. Yet, Wallace and his Schiltrons stood their ground and broke the English charge, paying bloody vengeance back on the English horsemen.However, in response, Edward calmly recalled his cavalry before bringing up his infantry and Welsh longbowmen to deliver the killer blow. Without the Scottish cavalry and archers to support them, the Schiltrons were forced to stand their ground as the English rained arrows and missiles down upon them. The lightly armored Scots died where they stood or fled.Lost Years and International EffortsA letter from King Philippe of France instructing his agents in Rome to assist William Wallace of Scotland in meeting with the Pope, whether this meeting took place or not is uncertain. Source: National Records of ScotlandHistorians often blame Wallace for not charging forward with his Schiltrons (as at Stirling Bridge), thus allowing Edward to dictate the battle on his terms. Yet, Wallace was caught in an unenviable dilemmacharging without archers or cavalry to cover him would only have invited Edward to surround the Schiltrons and destroy them.The truth was, Wallace lacked the arms and numbers to give battle, but he nearly succeeded in avoiding it altogether. Edward, one of the greatest generals of the Medieval Era, had only forced Wallace out of his denial and scorched earth strategy through some good luck. It is no slander on Wallace to say he had come for the king but just barely missed.Wallace escaped with his reputation, wholly reliant on military success, in tatters, and resigned from the Guardianship, but his story would not end at Falkirk. Edwards army was too low on supplies to completely subjugate Scotland, so after consolidating his gains, the king returned to England. In the meantime, new Guardians of Scotland were appointed, and Wallace left Scotland to gain diplomatic support.Edward I, Burgh by Sands. Source: GeographWallaces precise movements between 1299 and 1303 are somewhat uncertain, but he likely traveled to European courts like Norway to gain support for Scotlands cause. His best documented and successful venture was in the court of France, where he helped persuade King Philippe IV to threaten Edward out of another outright invasion of Scotland. Philippe even sought to help Wallace gain an audience with the Pope, but it is unknown if the audience ever actually took place.Records of these international ventures are the clearest indicators of Wallaces activities as the century turned. However, there are also folktales that tell of Wallaces adventures across Scotland, fighting English soldiers and righting wrongs, often coupled with local sites that have become famous attractions. Historically, it is only known for certain that Wallace was back from his international ventures around 1302-1303, once again taking up arms against Edward. For, despite Wallaces best efforts, Edward had managed to negotiate a truce with France and brought the full force of his might against Scotland again.Capture and ExecutionDumbarton Castle, where Wallace was interred after his capture before being taken to London, photo taken by the authorThe Scottish loyalists fought desperately but were too few to prevent Edwards methodical conquest. By 1304, Scotlands main defenders had accepted Edwards surprisingly fair terms of surrender. Edward, however, did not offer any terms to Wallace, not that he would have accepted any offer in any case.It is uncertain whether at this stage Wallace still led a group of supporters or was alone. Either way, he was an outlaw on the run, hunted down by former allies on the orders of a foreign king looking to make an example out of him. His last confirmed military action was a skirmish at Earnside in September 1304, after which his actions are unclear.For almost a year, there were more folktales of his adventures. His devotion to Scottish freedom remained unchanged, but logically, he could do little for his country on his own. He may have been planning another uprising or possibly looking to head abroad and join Scottish loyalists in exile. Whatever his plan, it came to nothing when, in August 1305, he was betrayed to the English by Sir John Menteith, thereafter known as the False Menteith for his treachery.Wallace was interred at Dumbarton Castle before being taken to face Edward in a trial at Westminster. The charges against Wallace were treason and, intriguingly, committing atrocities against civilians, a relative first in medieval legal history. In feudal law, Wallace could not commit treason against a king he had never pledged fealty to, such as Edward, who was also not one to talk about atrocities against civilians in any case.The Trial of William Wallace, by Daniel Maclise, 1909. Source: PicrylOf course, this was never meant to be a fair trial. Edward wanted to put the upstart Wallace in his place to demonstrate his total subjugation of Scotland. Edward depicted Wallace not as a genuine combatant, fighting and protected by the rights and customs of medieval warfare, but as an outlaw who betrayed the kings peace and murdered innocents.For his part, Wallace made a powerful rebuttal recorded in a 19th century book from earlier lost sources: To Edward, King of England, I cannot be a traitor. I owe him no allegiance; as he is not my sovereign; he never received my homage, and, whilst life is in this persecuted body, he never shall receive it.Edward felt no qualms about this response or removing life from Wallaces body, and the kangaroo court concluded with an inevitable guilty verdict. On August 23, 1305, William Wallace was executed in Smithfield in London by being hung, drawn, and quartereda brutal method reserved only for traitors and the worst of criminals. He was hung from a gibbet, disemboweled while still alive, then butchered into quarters, and his head was stuck upon a spike on London Bridge.Aftermath and the Fight for IndependenceA memorial to William Wallace at the site of his execution in Smithfield, London. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEdward intended for William Wallace to only be remembered as a warning for anyone who dared challenge his authority, but this, of course, failed. He died a heroic martyr for the cause of Scottish freedom and inspired his cowed countrymen to once again take up arms and expel the hated English. So the romanticized retelling goes.Certainly, Wallaces death was a shocking warning to his compatriots that Edward now saw Scotland as his own fief and they his subjects. Certainly, another great uprising would blaze up just a year later, led by Robert the Bruce, that eventually freed Scotland. Yet, it is uncertain how great a catalyst for this uprising Wallaces death was. Other factors, including a murder in a church, pushed Robert to rebel. Blind Harry certainly attempted to insert Wallace into Roberts story as an inspiring mentor who first suggested he should take the throne, but this seems to be poetic license rather than fact.Robert the Bruce at Stirling Castle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLikewise, it is narratively fitting to place Wallaces success at the end of his story, seeing his martyrdom as the inspirational catalyst for others to finish what he started and free Scotland. Yet, history is an unconventional story writer. Wallaces contribution to Scotlands eventual freedom came not at the end but throughout his life.He was a successful rebel who unified the divided nobility and inspired the common people. He and Moray maintained the momentum of the uprising and developed it into an actual chance at independence. Wallace also demonstrated the best strategies for the conflict and what (and sadly also what not) to do against the English in battle.This is not to say that Wallace taught Robert everything he needed to win Scotlands freedom, but there is no doubt that the Bruce built upon Wallaces foundations. He made himself a unifying figurehead (with a bit more violence against his countrymen than Wallace) and used guerrilla warfare and scorched earth tactics as needed. When he gave battle against England, he used his Schiltrons effectively, notably at Bannockburn in 1314, where, just like Wallace at Stirling, he surprised the English with a Schiltron charge and trapped them against a river. In other words, it was through his life, not death, that Wallace inspired great deeds in others.Man and Story Build a NationStatue of Wallace in Aberdeen, a somewhat more romantically stylized depiction of Wallace than other statues. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPart of what makes William Wallace such a compelling figure is how dramatically and swiftly he rose and fell. The period from Lanark to Falkirk took barely over a year, and the height of his glory as Guardian of Scotland ended almost as suddenly as it began. His origins and much of his campaign against England are shrouded in rumor, speculation, and even folklore. Yet, in his brief time in the limelight, he made an enormously powerful impact on the course of the war and on Scottish history.These two factors make Wallace the perfect canvas for folklore and romanticized history. A legend shrouded in mystery but who made a glorious, but no less real, impact in a fight for his nations survival. The framework of history can then be covered in folklore and poetic interpretation to fill in the gaps in his life and deeds.Bust of Blind Harry, by Alexander Stoddart. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWe have seen how the real Wallace fought for Scotland and inspired others to do so, yet the storified Wallace also served his country by building the Scottish national story. Blind Harrys poem was the first work dedicated solely to Wallace. Though published over a century and a half after Wallaces death, it triggered a renewed interest in the man and his legends throughout Scottish society. Other legends were published, and important families and even royalty took an interest in him and promoted him as a legendary national hero.Through the centuries, as Scottish national identity developed and struggled in the face of the union with England and the suppression of the Jacobites and Highlands, Wallace was a figure of Scottish freedom from a long-ago past. The likes of Walter Scott and Robert Burns celebrated his legendary heroics in their literature. In many ways then, one could say the myths and legends of William Wallace, the stories retold of the man, helped shape Scotland over the coming centuries just as the man himself had shaped Scotland to fight against Edwards conquest.