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The Persian king Cyrus the Great (ruled 559-530 BCE) founded the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE) and established Pasargadae as his capital.When Emperor Cyrus died, he was entombed there.His tomb was well tended until Alexander the Great (ruled 336-323 BCE) conquered Persia.Over the next millennium, Cyrus memory was gradually lost.The tomb was attributed instead to the Mother of Solomon and converted into a mosque, serving as a place of female pilgrimage. Later, the tomb was reattributed to Cyrus and is now a national monument.Who Was Cyrus the Great?Tomb of Cyrus the Great facing entrance, Pasargadae, Iran. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCyrus the Great was born in Anshan, Persia, at the start of the 6th century BCE to the Persian king Cambyses I and Queen Mandane of Media.Although terse, the Babylonian Nabonidus Chronicle (c. 500 BCE) outlines Cyrus the Greats reign.After Cyrus the Great became king of Persia, the Median king Astyages (ruled 585-550 BCE) attacked him in the hope of conquering Persian territory.Cyrus the Great defeated King Astyages, sacked his capital, and carried off the spoils to Anshan (Nabonidus Chronicle 2.1-4).Cyrus the Great later replaced the former capital, Anshan, with a new one at Pasargadae, which was also in Persia.According to the Greek historian Strabo in his Geographica (c. 1st century CE), Cyrus favored Pasargadae as it was the location where he defeated Astyages (Strabo 15.3.8). Following Cyrus the Greats victory over the Medes, he conquered many lands, including the kingdom of Lydia and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (Nabonidus Chronicle 2.10-18, 3.1-28).Stretching from the Indus River to the Mediterranean Sea, Cyrus the Greats Achaemenid Empire was now the largest the world had yet seen.Cyrus the Great was also renowned for his beneficence towards his subjects and their religions.According to the contemporaneous Babylonian Cyrus Cylinder, Cyrus the Great rebuilt temples in the Mesopotamian region that had fallen into disrepair under the occupation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.He also returned the statues of gods, which the Babylonians had earlier seized, to their original sanctuaries (Cyrus Cylinder 30-34).According to the Hebrew Bible, Cyrus the Great likewise allowed the Jews held in Babylon to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple.Additionally, he returned to them the treasures which had previously been taken by Babylon (Ezra 1:2-8).For his magnanimity, Cyrus the Great is described in the Bible as a messiah (Isaiah 45:1).Tomb of Cyrus the GreatTomb of Cyrus the Great Facing Hills, Pasargadae, Iran. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen Cyrus the Great died in 530 BCE, succeeded by his son Emperor Cambyses II (ruled 530-522 BCE), he was entombed in Pasargadae.The tomb was constructed in sand-colored limestone with six steps ascending to a chamber shaped like a small house and topped with a sloping triangular roof.Strabo writes that it was located inside a park, in a thicket of trees (Strabo 15.3.7).The Greek historian Arrian also described the tomb in his 2nd-century CE book, Anabasis of Alexander.Both Strabo and Arrian based their accounts on that of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, a 4th-century BCE Greek historian whose work is now lost. Arrian elaborates, writing that the park in which Cyrus the Greats tomb was located also contained running streams and a grassy meadow.The tombs entrance was so narrow it was difficult for even a small man to squeeze through into the chamber (Arrian 6.29).Past its narrow entrance and inside the tomb was Cyrus the Greats golden coffin, which was covered in cloth and a Babylonian rug. There was also a couch with gold feet, a table bearing cups, and an array of gem-encrusted garments, jewelry, and swords. The tomb was protected and cared for by well-provisioned priests who lived in a small building on the approach to the tomb. Once a month, they sacrificed a horse to Cyrus the Great (Arrian 6.29, Strabo 15.3.7).Arrival of Alexander the GreatAlexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes, 1796. Source: Art Institute of ChicagoAristobulus of Cassandreia only saw the tomb of Cyrus the Great because he accompanied the Macedonian emperor Alexander the Great on his wide-ranging conquests. Alexander inherited the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, located in modern Greece, from his father, Philip II of Macedon (ruled 359-336 BCE).Through a series of brilliant campaigns, Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire and defeated its final emperor, Darius III (ruled 336-330 BCE).Aristobulus of Cassandreia first visited Pasargadae as Alexander headed east in his conquest of Persia, seeing the tomb and its environs as described above.After Alexanders Indian campaign, they returned to Pasargadae.The defeat of the Achaemenid Empire resulted in political unrest in Persia, which Alexanders appointees had difficulty stamping out (Arrian 6.29).It was in this climate that the tomb was robbed of its portable items, leaving only the couch and coffin.The couch and coffin were both damaged, with the corpse of Cyrus the Great having been thrown out of the coffin and desecrated.Alexander tasked Aristobulus of Cassandreia with repairing the tomb. Aristobulus returned what remained of Cyruss body to his coffin and replaced the lid.He also mended the couch, procured identical items to those that had been stolen, and sealed off the tomb with stone and plaster (Arrian 6.29).Bathsheba Mother of SolomonA Jinn King Leads Solomon to a City Inhabited by a Monstrous People, page from a Persian version of The Book of the Wonders of Creation and Their Singularities, Iran, c. 16th century. Source: LouvreThe repair of the tomb of Cyrus the Great did not presage another illustrious era for Pasargadae. Although other cities took precedence over Pasargadae as capitals during the Achaemenid Empire, Pasargadae had remained an important location.Following Alexanders conquest of Persia, this ceremonial importance also declined.After Alexander died, the Macedonian Empire was fought over by his successors, and Persia was eventually ruled by the Seleucid Empire.Pasargadae was not a Seleucid capital, nor was it a capital of any of the subsequent empires.The city slowly decayed, and even the memory of Cyrus the Great was gradually lost.By the early Islamic era, Cyrus the Greats tomb was known by another name.The 12th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Balkhi wrote in his Fars-Nama about the tomb; however, he called it the tomb of Solomons Mother.He described it as a stone building with four sides situated near a meadow. Ibn al-Balkhi also claimed that anyone who entered the mausoleum would be cursed with blindness, so no one tried (Ibn al-Balkhi 154-155).The Mother of Solomon he referred to was Bathsheba, the mother of the 10th-century BCE Israelite prophet and king.According to the Quran, King Solomon could control the jinn, supernatural beings created from smokeless fire, and he compelled them to build shrines and various religious items, such as those at Pasargadae (Quran 34:12-13, 55:14). Pasargadae was not the only city in Persia to be reattributed to Solomon.Near Pasargadae was the ruined city of Persepolis, whose remnants dated back to the Achaemenid emperor Darius the Great (ruled 522-486 BCE). The Arab geographer Ibn Hawqal wrote in his 10th-century Surat Al-Ard that these were the ruins of a temple of Solomon that had been built by jinn (Hawqal 128-129). In this manner, these two fabulous ancient Persian capitals of the Achaemenids were attributed to Solomon and his jinn, thus transforming the landscape into a former dominion of Solomon.Tomb Becomes MosqueChamber Within the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, view of the central portion of the 13th century Atabeg Mihrab, photo by Ernst Herzfeld, c. 1905-1928. Source: Smithsonian InstitutionAlthough Ibn al-Balkhi wrote that the tomb was thought of as inaccessible, this soon changed.In his Travels to Tana and Persia, the 15th-century Venetian diplomat Giosafat Barbaro describes a litle churche being located atop the tomb, with Arabic writing inside (Barbaro 81).Giosafat Barbaro was not describing a church but a mosque. This mosque was located inside the chamber that once held Cyrus the Greats body. A mihrab, or wall niche denoting in which direction to pray, is carved inside the tomb. The mihrab and further inscriptions at the site of Pasargadae are dated to the reign of the Salghurid ruler Sad I ibn Zangi (ruled 1198-1226).The German diplomat Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo, in his 1647 Travels, noted that the ruins of great pillars surrounded the tomb (Mandelslo 1.2). Although these pillars were Achaemenid in origin, this was not their original location. Rather, Sad I ibn Zangi had moved them from their initial placements and utilized them in the construction of a larger mosque surrounding the tomb.One title of the Salghurids was heir of Solomons dominion, as inscribed by Sad I ibn Zangi on the lintel of the entry to the exterior mosque.Although grandiose for a small, subordinate dynasty, this title nevertheless demonstrates the importance with which they viewed Solomon and his supposed legacy in Persia. Additionally, Sad I ibn Zangi made the site a center for Islamic prayer with the construction of interior and exterior mosques.Wallada bint al-AbbasTomb of Cyrus Seen from a Distance, photo by A.G.A. van Eelde, 1925. Source: RijksmuseumBy the time Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo visited Pasargadae, only remnants of the exterior mosque remained.However, the little Chappel, meaning the interior mosque, continued to be used, and the villagers still attributed the tomb to Bathsheba.The village itself was called Mashhad e Madar e Soleiman or Tomb of the Mother of Solomon. However, Johan Albrecht de Mendelslo suggested an alternative Solomon.According to Christian missionaries, the tomb belonged to the mother of the Umayyad ruler Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik (ruled 715-717 CE).Her name was Wallada bint al-Abbas (Mandelslo 1.2).As Sulayman ibn Abd al-Maliks capital was Damascus, in contemporary Syria, it is highly improbable that Wallada bint al-Abbas would have been entombed in Pasargadae.More likely, this new attribution to Wallada bint al-Abbas represented an early foreign attempt to provide a more historical explanation for the importance of the site.The locals, however, considered the tomb to be Bathshebas and likely believed Solomon had ordered the jinn to construct this sepulcher for his mother.Pilgrimage SiteTomb of Cyrus, by Eugne Flandin, c. 1851-1854. Source: New York Public LibraryIn addition to the tomb being an important location for villagers, people throughout the region would journey to the mausoleum for religious purposes.According to the French author Andr Daulier Deslandes in his Les Beauts de la Perse (1673), people would travel to Pasargadae for the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Adha (Deslandes 73).Eid al-Adha commemorates the Hebrew patriarch Abraham and his obedience to God, exemplified by his willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael. Fortunately for Ishmael, God spared him, and Abraham sacrificed a lamb in his stead (Quran 37:102-109).But for the majority of the year, the pilgrims were predominantly women.The 1675 account of the travels of the Dutch explorer Jan Janszoon Struys, entitled The Perilous and Most Unhappy Voyages, described this aspect. Women visited the tomb to pray for themselves and their friends.The supplicant would bend down, pressing her head against the tomb thrice and kissing it thrice before saying a short prayer (Struys 331).When the English diplomat James Justinian Morier visited Pasargadae, as recorded in his book A Journey Through Persia (1812), the key to the tomb was held by women.Only women were permitted to enter the sepulcher.Additionally, the ruined columns of the exterior mosque were incorporated into a low wall surrounding the tomb, and the area inside formed a burial ground for villagers. People thought the building was so extraordinary that they considered it to have been the court of jinn (Morier 144-145).Rediscovering CyrusTomb of Cyrus the Great, Pasargadae, Iran. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the 19th century, most people still believed the tomb to be that of Solomons mother, Bathsheba, but James Justinian Morier suggested otherwise.After briefly considering Johan Albrecht de Mandelslos proposal that it was the tomb of Wallada bint al-Abbas, James Justinian Morier turned to Arrian. He compared Arrians description of the tomb of Cyrus the Great to his own observations, concluding that the tomb he saw may have been Cyruss (Morier 145-146).This tentative reattribution was furthered by other scholars, both European and Persian, in the 19th and early 20th centuries.As the tomb of Cyrus the Great, the mausoleum became a monument representing the modern nation of Iran. The Persian archaeologist Ali Sami Shirazi wrote in his 1956 book Pasargadae that he had constructed a stone wall around the tomb the previous year (Shirazi 48) to prevent locals from accessing the tomb as a mosque.In preparation for a 1971 event celebrating Persian monarchy, the remains of the exterior mosque were removed and the columns returned to their approximate palatial locations.When one visits the tomb of Cyrus the Great today, little can be seen of its medieval past. However, the centuries when the tomb of Cyrus the Great was a mosque remain historically significant.The mosque of the Mother of Solomon exemplifies how people altered the mausoleums significance and usage to reflect their needs and worldviews.The tomb of Cyrus the Great stands today as a monumental representation of the achievements of ancient Persia.BibliographyArnold, B. (2006) The Neo-Babylonian Chronicle Series, in M. Chavalas (ed.) The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation, pp. 407-426, Blackwell Publishing.Arrian (1958) The Campaigns of Alexander (A. de Slincourt, trans.), pp. 344347, Penguin Books.Barbaro, J. (1873) Travels to Tana and Persia (H. E. J. Stanley, Ed.; W. Thomas, trans.) p. 81, Hakluyt Society.Daulier Deslandes, A. (1673) Les Beautez de la Perse, pp. 71-73m Gervais Clouzier. https://archive.org/details/lesbeautezdelape00daul/page/70/mode/2up.De Mandelslo, J. A. (1669) The Travels of John Albert de Mandelslo (J. Davies, trans.), vol. I, p. 2, John Starkey & Thomas Basset.Ebn Haukal (1800) The Oriental Geography of Ebn Haukal (W. Ouseley, trans.) pp. 128129. Wilson & Co. https://archive.org/details/orientalgeograp00agoog/page/n178/mode/2up.Finkel, I. (2013) The Cyrus Cylinder: The Babylonian Perspective, in The Cyrus Cylinder, pp. 47, Bloomsbury.Ibnul-Balkh. (1921) The Frsnma of Ibnul-Balkh (G. Le Strange & R. Nicholson, eds.) pp. 154155, Cambridge University Press.Morier, J. (1812) A Journey Through Persia, pp. 144147, Longman & Co.Mozaffari, A., ed. (2014) World Heritage in Iran: Perspectives on Pasargadae, Routledge.Sami, A. (1971) Pasargad (R. Sharp, trans.), Musavi Printing Office.Strabo. (1903) Geography (H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer, trans.), vol. XV, George Bell & Sons.Struys, J. (1683) The Perillous and Most Unhappy Voyages of John Struys (J. Morrison, trans.) p. 331, Samuel Smith.

The mysterious figure of the wizard Merlin is one of the most popular characters from the Arthurian legends. In most versions of the story, he is one of Arthurs closest and most important allies, providing guidance in war and peace. Many of the most famous features of the Arthurian legends are tied to Merlin in some way, such as the Round Table and the Sword in the Stone. While different versions present Merlin in different ways, what is the basic story of this character in the Arthurian legends?Merlins Birth and ParentageMerlin, Nuremberg Chronicle fol. 183r, 1493. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGiven that Merlin is almost invariably shown to be a benevolent figure, helping Arthur fight against the forces of evil, his origin is quite surprising. The first record to provide Merlin with an origin story is Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137. He explains that a tyrant named Vortigern called for a boy without a father to be sacrificed at the site of a tower that he was attempting to build. Merlin is the boy who is brought forth, and in this passage, we learn of his origins.According to Geoffreys account, Merlin was born from a spirit who visited his mother at night and slept with her. One of Vortigerns men refers to this as an incubus, a specific type of male demon that violates sleeping women and produces demonic offspring. In other words, Merlin is portrayed as half-demon. Nevertheless, Merlin is consistently portrayed as a benevolent figure in Geoffreys account, something which he does not specifically explain.Young Merlin before King Vortigern, MS Cotton Claudius B VII, fol. 224. Source: British LibraryLater versions of the story expand on this origin and explain why Merlin is not a force for evil. The major contribution to Merlins story was the poem Merlin, written in c. 1200 by Robert de Boron. While almost nothing of this poem survives, a prose version, possibly written by Robert himself in c. 1210, reveals what Robert wrote about this figure. This version is much the same as in Geoffreys account, but Robert specifies that Merlin was actually supposed to be the Antichrist.However, Merlins evil destiny was prevented from coming to fruition by the actions of a character named Blaise. He is a priest who baptizes Merlin immediately after birth. This frees him from Satans power and explains why he is able to have a benevolent role in the legends.Nevertheless, as a result of his supernatural origin, Merlin has miraculous abilities. He is able to shapeshift, as well as allow others to change their appearances. He also has supernatural knowledge of the past and present, while God bestows him with supernatural knowledge of the future.Merlins Service to Ambrosius and UtherImage in the Prose Merlin by Robert de Boron depicting Uther with Igerna on the night of Gorlois death, c. 13th century. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceThe early part of Merlins career is fairly consistent between Geoffreys account and Roberts Merlin. Merlin is presented as serving Ambrosius during his reign as king, overseeing his overthrow of Vortigern. During a break in Ambrosius wars against his enemies, Ambrosius desired to construct a large stone monument in honor of the British leaders who had been killed during the Saxon wars. To do so, Ambrosius decided to travel to Ireland to steal the Giants Dance, an existing monument. This proved too much for Ambrosius men, so Merlin used his magic to levitate the stones and fly them over to Britain, where they became Stonehenge.Later, upon the death of Ambrosius, a dragon-shaped comet appeared in the sky. Merlin interpreted this as a sign representing his son Uther. Two rays that issued forth from the dragons mouth represented two of Uthers offspring, Arthur and an unnamed daughter.Most famously, Merlin used his magic to disguise Uther as Gorlois, duke of Cornwall. This allowed Uther to sneak into Igernas castle during a war with Gorlois and violate Igerna without her or any of Gorlois men suspecting anything.Merlin and the Rise of King ArthurHe stood there holding the magic sword in his hand, by Archibald Stevenson Forrest, 1906. Source: New York Public LibraryThe aforementioned union is what resulted in Arthurs conception. In Geoffreys account, Arthur simply succeeds Uther without any strange occurrences. However, from Robert de Borons Merlin onwards, the story of Merlin involved him using his powers as a wizard to assist in the transition to Arthurs rule. For unstated reasons, Merlin is said to have taken Arthur to Sir Erec to be raised in secret. Therefore, upon Uthers death, when Arthur was a teenager, there was no clear successor.Consequently, Merlin manufactured the challenge of the Sword in the Stone. He made this magical sword appear in a churchyard, stuck through an anvil and into a stone. On the side, it was written that only the rightful king could draw it out. Eventually, the young Arthur happens to take it, not even realizing its significance.After repeating this action at all the important Christian festivals of the year, the people finally accept Arthur as their new king. In this way, Merlin assured Uthers succession through Arthur.Merlins Key Contributions to the Arthurian LegendsKing Arthur and his knights at the Round Table, in Prose Lancelot in manuscript BNF 112, by Evrard dEspinques, 1470. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceMerlin contributed greatly to various famous features of the Arthurian legends. According to Robert de Borons account, it was Merlin who constructed the Round Table, which he did in the reign of Uther Pendragon. Interestingly, this contradicts the earliest mention of the Round Table from Wace in c. 1155. Wace presented Arthur as having the Round Table constructed. Presumably, Robert de Boron changed this to provide Merlin with even greater importance.Robert de Borons account ends with the accession of Arthur. However, later versions of the Arthurian legends, such as the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate Cycle, provide further details of his legendary career. In the Post-Vulgate Cycle, the distinction between the Sword in the Stone and Excalibur is first introduced (in earlier versions, they are the same sword). Merlin is responsible for Arthurs acquisition of this second sword, just as he was for his first. He is described as taking him to a lake, where the Lady of the Lake famously sticks her hand out of the water and provides Arthur with Excalibur.Merlins Loves: Vivian and Morgan le FeyShe was known to have studied magic while she was being brought up in the nunnery, by William Henry Margetson, 1914. Source: University of RochesterMerlin has another famous association with the Lady of the Lake, whose name was Nimue or Viviane (depending on the version). First, however, comes Merlins connection with Morgan le Fay. She was Arthurs sister and one of the ladies-in-waiting of Guinevere, Arthurs queen. After Guinevere discovers an affair between Morgan and Guiomar and demands that it stop, Morgan withdraws from Camelot in a rage. Thereafter, she goes to Merlin to be taught the magical arts so that she will be able to gain revenge against Guinevere. Since Morgan then goes on to become Arthurs main enemy throughout his reign, Merlins own folly is profoundly evident here.Merlin falls in love with Morgan, but his feelings are ultimately not returned. Morgan insists on rejecting Merlin despite his insistence, even threatening to harm him if he does not leave her alone. Nevertheless, she frequently calls on him for help, and he is always there to assist her. In fact, there is one insistence in which Merlin lies to Arthur to protect Morgan, which appears to be the only instance of Merlin doing such a thing to Arthur.The Lady of the Lake (Viviane) with Merlin in Witches Tree, by Edward Burne-Jones, 1882. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter this, Merlin falls in love with Viviane. His connection with this character varies considerably in the different tellings of the Arthurian legend. Nevertheless, there is wide agreement that Viviane was the object of Merlins love. Like Morgan, Viviane is portrayed as using Merlin to learn everything that she could about magic. After doing this, like Morgan, she rejects Merlin. Unlike Morgan, who apparently did sleep with Merlin in at least some versions of the legend, Viviane utterly refuses to have intercourse with him.After using him to become a powerful sorceress, Viviane traps Merlin in an eternal prison. The exact nature of this prison varies depending on the version. In some versions, it is within a tree. In others, it is a cave. Others present it as a large, invisible tower from which there is no escape. In any case, Merlin is usually presented as offering little resistance, and after this, he is never seen again.Who Is the Wizard Merlin?A modern carving of Merlins face at Tintagel, Cornwall, England. Source: photo by Caleb HowellsIn summary, Merlin plays a vital role in most versions of the Arthurian legends. He was born from the union of a demonic incubus and a human mother, intended to be the Antichrist. Being baptized at birth, he was freed from this evil destiny and became benevolent. He is always portrayed as assisting the kings whom he served, such as Ambrosius, Uther, and Arthur. Using his magic, Merlin brought the Giants Dance over from Ireland for Ambrosius. He enabled Uther to disguise himself as Gorlois to take Igerna. Merlin assured Athurs ascendancy to the throne by manufacturing the challenge of the Sword in the Stone, along with assisting him throughout his reign.Merlin presenting the future king Arthur, by Emil Johann Lauffer, before 1909. Source: SothebysMerlins downfall was ultimately his passion for Morgan and, later, Viviane. Both of them were students of Merlin who learned everything they could from him, becoming powerful sorceresses before then rejecting him. In the case of Viviane, this resulted in Merlin becoming trapped in an eternal prison.