Cyrus the Great (590-529 BCE) was known as an innovative warrior and a benevolent king. He expanded the Achaemenid Dynasty to reach from the Mediterranean coasts to Himalayan hills. He encouraged the diverse people of his empire to practice their religions, continue cultural traditions, and participate in government. He showed respect for his enemies. Historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon documented his accomplishments, and he is celebrated in myths and Biblical stories. His unification efforts transformed the nomadic Pasargadae tribes of present-day Iran into the powerful Persian Empire.Cyrus Prepared for the Life of a Warrior KingCyrus, King of Persia, from Four Illustrious Rulers of Antiquity by Adrian Collaert, Maerten de Vos, Netherlands, 1590s. Source: Elisha Whittlesey Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkCyrus the Great has a fascinating ancestry. His mother was the only child of the King of Media (Lieven, pg. 48). Like most young Persian men, Cyrus was taught to ride a horse, shoot a bow, and tell the truth. His father Cambyses was a patient instructor in each of these life skills, shaping his son to be a warrior and effective king. Cambyses was proud of Cyrus progress, praising him for his intelligent decisions, his physical strength, and his understanding of the kingdoms problems.Unfortunately, Cyrus father died in battle in 559 BCE. The loss of his devoted parent and teacher inspired Cyrus to become the leader his father had envisioned. Cambyses funerary rites reflected the pomp and rituals appropriate for a revered king (Jones, pg. 50). To honor his late father, Cyrus waited for five months before taking the crown.Cyrus Becomes King of Persia in PasargadaeTomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae, postcard from 2004. Source: British MuseumKing Cyrus II seemed blessed by the gods. Harbingers of good fortune surrounded his royal coronation ceremony in the verdant fields in the southwest of present-day Iran. The low rolling hills were blooming with carpets of red and purple poppies, and the pomegranate trees were heavy with fruit (Jones, p. 51). Court officials and priests conferred the titles of king and khan upon Cyrus in a solemn ceremony filled with Eurasian symbolism.Cyrus, at about 30 years of age, was in the prime of life. He presented himself simply, without a royal aura. He did not wear robes lined with purple and gold or place a jewel-encrusted crown on his head. Yet, for the semi-nomadic Pasargadae tribal people he ruled, he was the epitome of a warrior and a fine specimen of manhood. He was the only ruler they desired, their chieftain, khan, and king.As Cyrus II grew in influence, they were the core of what would become the Achaemenid Empire.Cyrus IIs First Conquest: Mastering the MedesThe Cyrus Cylinder, proclamation by Cyrus II, after 539 BCE. Source: The British MuseumCyrus first major recorded conquest was his mastery of the Medes, one of the premier powers of the early 6th century BCE (Waters, p. 55). Few contemporary sources document the Medes rise and their role in overthrowing the Assyrian Empire. The Greek historian Herodotus description of the Median Empire must be read carefully since counter-primary sources written during this period are incomplete (Waters, p. 56).During the Assyrian Empires heyday from the late 9th century to mid-7th century BCE, the Medes were frequent targets of their Assyrian overlords. The Assyrians plundered Mede settlements in the Zagros mountains for horses, valuables, and manpower. Fortunes changed during the late 7th century BCE when the Assyrians were destroyed. The Medes and their Babylonian allies waged a three-month siege and sacked Nineveh in 612 BCE, ending Assyrian dominance in the region. Ninevehs destruction was a significant event in shaping the history of the ancient Near East.Modern historians have theorized that the Medes led a vast coalition of Iranian peoples across northern Iran and used their alliances to defeat Assyria. The political and military situation that faced Cyrus was Median dominance over multiple neighbors, each of whom owed allegiance, directly or indirectly, to a Median overlord without the formal structure of an organized empire (Waters, p. 59).Cyrus II Captures the Median KingThe Defeat of Astyages from the series The Life of Cyrus. Tapestry by Maximilien de Haese and Jac. van der Borght, 1771-75. Source: The Museum of Fine Arts, BostonFriction between Cyrus IIs family and the Medes was a long-term conflict. With Cyrus inauguration as king, the simmering disagreements served as a pretext for him to confront his rivals. This proved more difficult than Cyrus had planned. His armies suffered three serious defeats before overcoming the Medes. Other kings might have reveled in victory, but Cyrus displayed tolerance and leniency toward his adversaries. He incorporated his defeated enemy into his empire and allowed them to retain government positions. He assured the Medes that he had great respect for their culture since his maternal grandfather was Astyages, King of the Medes.He cemented this bond by entering King Astyagess tent, taking his place on the throne, and grasping his royal scepter. The Crown of the Medes was placed on his head. Rather than the vengeful act of killing his grandfather, Cyrus spared him and granted him a princely lifestyle for the rest of his life. Cyrus treatment of his grandfather gave him his reputation as a benevolent monarch.Challenging Croesus, the King of LydiaTemple of Artemis at Sardis. Source: Harvard Art MuseumThe Medes holdings, filled with rich grazing lands and fine houses, were instrumental in Cyrus future plans. The Medes also offered Cyrus a source of well-trained manpower to challenge his next target, the Kingdom of Lydia. The Lydians had expanded their realm to the west and east. They had consolidated their holdings in western Anatolia during the 7th century and had expanded in power and wealth by the time Cyrus rose to power (Freeman, p. 106). The King of Lydia, Croesus, ruled from Sardis, a sophisticated acropolis city. His army dominated western Anatolia, increasing Croesus vast wealth by plundering rival Greek city-states on the Anatolian coast. He also funded construction of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.While the sheer wealth of Lydia made it a tempting target, Cyrus II was more interested in stamping out any remnants of Median resistance that remained in Croesus kingdom. He intended to continue territorial expansion and reap the benefits of overthrowing such a powerful rival (Jones, p. 61).The Oracle Speaks TruthGold Stater, Foreparts of lion and bull confronted. Lydian, 560-546 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkCroesus himself harbored ambitions of expanding his powerful kingdom. He viewed the new Persian king as a threat and sought to destroy him before he became more powerful. Croesus recognized the high stakes involved, and before launching a military campaign against the Persians he sought advice from the Oracle of Delphi. To strengthen his chances of a favorable response, he gathered gold and treasures and asked the Oracle what would happen if he went to war against the Persians.The Oracles prophecies were not literal statements, but cryptic riddles that required knowledgeable interpretation. The Oracles words were exactly what Croesus wanted to hear: If you cross the Halys River, a great empire will fall. Delighted by what seemed to be a prediction of defeat for his enemy, Croesus eagerly engaged in preparations for war.Cyrus encountered the Lydian king with his army at Pteria. There, they fought a ferocious but indecisive battle.Croesus had to withdraw and disband his army since he was reluctant to compensate the large number of mercenaries on his payroll.This proved to be only the first of his mistakes. Croesus retreated behind his safe city walls without considering the possibility of Cyrus attempting a winter campaign. Yet this was precisely what Cyrus did. His hardy warriors wrapped themselves in cowhide coats and sheepskin trousers and pushed through the biting winds on their strong Nisean horses, their camping equipment and arms carried on camels, all in pursuit of the Lydian soldiers (Jones, p. 62).Croesus Showing His Treasures to Solon. Painting by Caspar van den Hoecke, c. 1647. Source: Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaWhen Cyrus finally arrived near the plains of Thumbra, near Sardis, Croesus was shocked. Cyrus used a variety of innovative tactics that amazed the Lydians. He used camels to resupply the arrows so that his archers could deliver a withering barrage. Using camels had another advantage: the Lydian cavalry were scared off by the smell of the camels. Without the threat of the feared cavalry, the Persians were able to destroy their enemy quickly. Croesus fled the field in disgrace, taking refuge in the acropolis above Sardis. He sent desperate messengers to his various allies on the Ionian coast, but they were unwilling to help. They saw Croesus as an oppressor, unworthy of support. The Persian besiegers captured the city in late December 547 and Croesus surrendered to Cyrus.A fragmentary cuneiform text from Babylon confirms the fate of Croesus. He died at Sardis early in 546 BCE: In the month Nsanu, Cyrus, King of Persia, mustered his army and crossed the Tigris below Arbela. In the month of Ajaru, he marched to the land of Lydia. He killed its King, took his possessions, and stationed his own garrison (Jones, p. 63).Birth of the Persian EmpireSilver plate depicting a king Hunting Lions, 5th-7th century CE, Iran. Source: British MuseumAfter Sardis finally surrendered to the victorious Persians, other Ionian cities soon followed suit. Their leaders sued for peace and offered Cyrus their tribute in due measure as his vassals. Living up to his reputation, Cyrus was gracious in victory and offered all Ionian cities a vestige of self-government. Each city was ruled by a local Greek, carefully chosen and supervised by a Persian superior. Now, the Persians ruled over an empire that stretched from modern-day Iran to the coast of Turkey. This achievement was not the end of expansion. Through his military conquests and his conciliatory rule, Cyrus the Great consolidated a tribal society into the Persian Empire. The legendary city of Babylon was his next target, but that is a story for another time.BibliographyCotterell , A. (2022). Where War Began: A Military History of the Middle East from the Birth of Civilization to Alexander the Great and the Romans. Stackpole Books.Lieven, D. (2022). In the Shadow of the Gods: The Emperor in World History.Viking.Llewellyn-Jones, L. (2022). Persians: The Age of the Great Kings. Basic Books.Pinzelli, E. G. L. (2022). Masters of Warfare. Pen & Sword Military.Waters, M. (2022). King of the World: The Life of Cyrus the Great. Oxford University Press.

Why was Alexander the Great seen by the Romans as the greatest military leader of the ancient world? This question would endlessly fascinate and drive Roman commanders to envy his innovative military strategies since he was the standard for battlefield excellence. The Martial Roman society honored Alexander with mosaics and statues. Roman historians focused on his military prowess in expanding his empire while noting that he never conquered Rome. Centuries later, rulers such as Cleopatra and the Emperor Augustus still offered their respect to the Macedonian king.Alexanders LegacyEntry of Alexander the Great into Babylon, or The Triumph of Alexander. Painting by Charles Le Brun, 1665. Source: The Louvre Museum, ParisAlexander was aware of his role in unifying his sprawling empire. In his last words before his death, his subordinates reportedly asked to whom he wanted to leave his empire. To the strongest, he replied (Strauss, p. 241). His successors, the Diadochi, swiftly carved up his realm but could not diminish the power of his legendary exploits. Alexanders empire depended on the magnetism of the man himself.Alexanders generalship and leadership skills gave him legendary status. The odds were always against him in the battles he fought and the sieges he waged, yet he never panicked or retreated to fight another day. He had an uncanny ability to adopt the right strategy and tactics, no matter how audacious, no matter the risks involved for him and his men (Worthington, p. 304).Hellenism Conquers the RomansThe Alexander Mosaic, Pompeii, between 120 and 100 BCE. Source: Naples Archaeological MuseumDuring the 1st century BCE, many Romans were inspired by Greek culture and history. The educated Roman citizen was fluent in Greek and immersed himself in Hellenic philosophy and literature. Hellenistic culture spread throughout the Roman world. Many succeeding emperors modeled themselves on Alexander and tried to match his conquests in the East, though none was able to extend Roman rule beyond Mesopotamia (Freeman, p. 327).While Alexanders short-lived empire never conquered Rome militarily, his cultural influence dominated Asia, Africa, and Europe (Freeman, p. 323). The love for Greek culture diminished as the Roman Empire became more diverse, but admiration for Alexander remained constant throughout the imperial period (Worthington, p. 309).The Hero of Roman GeneralsOctavian at the tomb of Alexander the Great. Painting by Lionel Royer, 1878. Source: The Art Renewal Center, Port Reading, New JerseyLacking Alexanders exploits, the Roman Emperors depended on battlefield superiority and effective administrative organization. Yet, they longed for Alexanders mythical heroism. The parallels between Alexander and Caesarboth youthful, energetic, and ambitiouswere obvious. It was no coincidence that images of Julius Caesar from the Republican Period of Rome show that he had adopted Alexanders hairstyle and presentation (Goldsworthy, 2014, p. 207).During the Roman Empire, emperors such as Augustus, Caligula, Vespasian, Titus, and Hadrian visited Alexanders tomb in Alexandria. His body symbolized the zenith of imperial power. When Octavian (later known as Caesar Augustus) arrived triumphantly in Alexandria in 30 BCE after defeating Cleopatra and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium, officials offered him a tour of the city. When his guide inquired, Would you now like to visit the Mausoleum of the Ptolemies? Octavian retorted, I came to see a king, not a row of corpses (Everitt, p. 196).Emulating Alexanders Battlefield StrategiesAlexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great. Painting by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes, 1796. Source: The Art Institute of Chicago, IllinoisRoman military commanders celebrated and emulated Alexanders battlefield strategies. He was a symbol of world conquest, and his legacy made him immortal in the eyes of the Romans long after his death in Babylon in 323 BCE. Even when outnumbered on the battlefield, Alexanders armies were able to use the terrain, encircle his enemies, and adopt innovative tactics to surprise seasoned opponents.He inherited his fathers fine-tuned core of professional infantrymen and capable subordinate commanders who could act independently on the field. They used long pikes and formed square battle formations known as phalanxes to neutralize cavalrymen. Alexander gave these troops a prominent place in his battle plan and respected their role in his victories. They rewarded him with loyalty.Pompey the Greats InspirationPortrait Bust of Pompey the Great with Assorted Medallion Portraits, Francois Joseph Etienne Beisson, 1759-1820. Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art, PennsylvaniaAs the Hellenistic period gave way to the Roman era, Alexanders military exploits continued to inspire admiration. This is not surprising in a society that honored a victorious general with a triumphant parade through the streets of Rome if he had killed at least 5,000 enemy troops (Worthington, p. 303).During the 1st century BCE, the Roman general Pompey claimed the title of Magnus (the Great) as an allusion to Alexanders conquests in Asia. Pompey had proven himself an effective commander throughout his campaigns, even leading charges personally in emulation of Alexanders heroic style (Goldsworthy, 2006, p. 154). Popular stories of the time described Pompeys fighting at the front of his men, striking down enemies with sword and spear (Goldsworthy, 2006, p. 249).Julius Caesar Struggled to Surpass AlexanderBust of Julius Caesar by Andrea di Pietro di Marco Ferrucci, 1465-1526. Source: via the Metropolitan Museum, New YorkRoman generals typically led from close behind the fighting line. Directing troop movements from the rear allowed the general to issue commands to subordinates and take advantage of the flexible nature of the Roman legions. Generals were at risk from missiles or the attack of a bold individual who sought fame by killing the commander. In this way, leaders shared the risks with their soldiers.Like Alexander, Julius Caesar took these risks one step further. Caesar moved to the front of the fighting line, displaying the aristocratic virtues of personal courage and masculinitythe ideal of valor for a commander (Goldsworthy, 2006, p. 249). He encouraged the men around him on the battlefield, assuring them of his personal leadership and concern.Trajan Yearns for Alexanders EmpireSculpture of Trajan, Roman Imperial period, after 103 CE. Source: Harvard Art Museum, MassachusettsEmperor Trajan envied the size of Alexander the Greats empire. He believed that Rome could equal Alexanders dominance, noting that Alexander had conquered Achaemenid Persia when he was little more than 20 years old (Jackson, p. 199). Trajan decided to strike at the heart of Parthias empire in Babylonia and chase down the King of Kings as Alexander had done.Once his legions had crossed the Tigris River, the Romans faced little resistance in their invasion of Parthia. Nineveh fell quickly into Roman hands. Then, Arbela, the very city where Darius III, the last King of Persia, fled from Alexander after suffering defeat at the Battle of Gaugamela, surrendered (Jackson, p. 219).In his last campaign, Trajan was able to advance the Roman troops to the mouth of the Euphrates. Though he was victorious, Trajan lamented that his forces could advance no further. He was unable to equal Alexanders conquests. From the rivers harbor, Trajan watched ships depart for India. As he gazed over the hazy turquoise waters of the Persian Gulf, he dreamed of accepting the adulation for the conquest of the distant mythical lands of the Indian subcontinent, and he wept, knowing that he would not achieve his dreams (Jackson, pp. 223-224).Alexanders DetractorsRoman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. Statue by Jean Antoine Houdon, 1828. Source: The Louvre Museum, ParisNot everyone shared the Roman generals esteem for Alexander. Cicero, the great Roman statesman, and orator, told a story about Alexander angrily asking a pirate: What is your idea of infesting the sea? The pirate answered boldly, The same as yours in infesting the earth! But because I do it in a tiny craft, Im called a pirate; because you have a mighty navy, you are called an emperor (Freeman, p. 331).Statue of Livy at Austrian Parliament in Vienna by Josef Lax, 1900. Source: Photos of monuments, State Education Server of Baden-WrttembergThe Roman historian Livy expressed no surprise that Alexander had easily defeated the barbarian armies of Persia, but he maintained that an encounter with a Roman army would have been quite different (Freeman, p. 332). Livy argued that the Romans shield and javelin were superior weapons. Further, Rome and its allies fielded far stronger and better-trained soldiers than Alexander could have managed.Livy, a devoted Roman patriot, was not awed by Alexanders mythical reputation. For him, those who praised Alexander were the silliest of Greeks who are fond of exalting the reputation at the expense of the Roman name and who believed that the Roman people would not have had resolution to bear up against the splendor of Alexanders name.The Enduring HeroStatue (Head Detail) of Alexander the Great. Sculpture by Leochares from the Classical Period after 338 BCE. Source: The Acropolis Museum, Athens, GreeceIn spite of those who tempered their analysis with their patriotism, statues and coins bearing Alexanders image were still made centuries after his death, a testament to his lasting legacy.The Greek tradition of hero-worship was the cult of the individual, and the hero is always imagined standing alone (Lieven, p. 55). Among later rulers in the Roman, Christian, and Muslim worlds, no ancient emperor enjoyed more fame and allure than Alexander, though his influence was sometimes nefarious.From Alexanders successors to Pyrrhus of Epirus, Hannibal to Julius Caesar, and Augustus to Trajan and a whole host of Roman emperors after term, would-be conquerors looked to Alexander as their model. Alexander was a man brought up on the steps of a throne, and he risked megalomania, achieved military fame, and conquered an empire. He needed no encouragement from misleading Homeric role models (Lieven, pg. 55).BibliographyEveritt, A. (2006). Augustus: The Life of Romes First Emperor. Random House.Freeman, P. (2011). Alexander the Great. Simon & Schuster.Goldsworthy, A. K. (2006). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press.Goldsworthy, A. K. (2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press.Lieven, D. (2022). In the Shadow of the Gods: The Emperor in World History. Viking.Nicholas, J. (2022). Trajan: Romes Last Conqueror. Greenhill Books.Strauss, B. S. (2013). Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.Worthington, I. (2014). By The Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire. Oxford University Press.

Angered by the French monarchy's ongoing tyranny, rebels stormed the infamous Bastille prison in Paris, France, on July 14, 1789.The post Inside The Revolutionary Story Of The Storming Of The Bastille And What Caused It appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Lets face it, nobody likes the TSA. And, youre especially not going to have a good time if youre on one of their travel watchlists like Quiet Skies, a program designed to track risky

WASHINGTON, D.C. Vice President JD Vance and Secretary of State Marco Rubio on Tuesday night detailed how the America First movement is inspired by pursuing the national interest and empowering everyday

MILANMount Etna, the volcano that towers over eastern Sicily, has again captivated the world with a spectacular show, spewing smoke and high into the sky.But the defining event of Mondays eruption

Unexploded bombs are often found in Germany, where many major cities sustained heavy damage during the warBERLINThousands of people were evacuated from central Cologne in western Germany on Wednesday

Former CNN drone Jim Acosta sounded more like the late Reverend Jim Jones Tuesday night as he preached his political message in a cult-like setting. The sparse crowd figuratively drank the Kool-Aid instead

One prisoner was killed and three security officials were wounded in the ensuing shootout.KARACHI, PakistanMore than 100 inmates escaped from a prison and at least one was killed in a shootout in the

This afternoon, President Trump spoke with Russian President Vladimir Putin in a lengthy phone call that lasted over an hour. And, its not great news, as far as ending the war goes During the phone