Beowulf is the longest and most well-known Old English poem, probably composed between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. However, while Beowulf was composed in Old English, it describes heroes from Germanic tribes living in Scandinavia in the 6th century CE. Why did the English composers decide to produce such a complex work about their overseas neighbors, and how much of the poem preserves verifiable information about the pre-Viking world versus how the Christian English imagined life in the pagan world on the other side of the North Sea?When Was Beowulf Composed?The opening words ofBeowulf, in the Nowell Codex (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, f. 132r.), c. 11th century. Source: British LibraryThe oldest surviving manuscript of Beowulf, known as the Nowell Codex, dates between 975 and 1025 CE. It is part of Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, which is considered one of the four major Old English poetic manuscripts. The manuscript also contains The Life of Saint Christopher, Wonders of the East,Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, and Judith. However, it is best known for its association with Beowulf and is sometimes referred to as the Beowulf Manuscript. Nevertheless, it is presumed that the poem itself was composed earlier and transmitted orally before it was finally recorded.The story is set in Scandinavia during the pre-Viking era of the 6th century CE, providing this version of the poem with a terminus post quem. But determining when the poem was composed is important, because while the poem describes a thoroughly pagan world, England was undergoing swift Christianization in the 6th and 7th centuries. Therefore, the composition date can help us better understand the origins of the descriptions of paganism in the poem.If the poem is old, with a long oral tradition, the pagan elements described in the story may recall first-hand knowledge and experience preserved over the centuries. A later composition date, for example in the 10th century, suggests that pagan elements were added to create atmosphere and may have been based on assumptions about heathen neighbors.Reconstructed rider motif from the Sutton Hoo Helmet and a Danish stamp from Tsinge showing a similar motif. Source: National Museum of DenmarkScholarly opinion is currently divided. Some scholars favor a composition date in the 7th century, during which time there were strong cultural and economic ties between East Anglia and Scandinavia. This connection is evident in the archaeological record, for example, the Sutton Hoo ship burial, an Anglo-Saxon ship burial with clear Norse influences. It has long been suggested that the famous Sutton Hoo Helmet could have been imported from Scandinavia. Moreover, a newly discovered metal stamp found in Denmark shows a warrior on horseback that matches a motif on the Sutton Hoo Helmet, potentially confirming Danish origins. New DNA studies also suggest a significant Scandinavian presence in East Anglia between 500 and 800 CE.Other scholars suggest that the poem could not have been composed until the start of the 11th century, when Norse influence in England had become more pronounced following Viking raids, the arrival of the Great Heathen Army, and the reigns of Viking kings of England, including Swein Forkbeard and Cnut the Great. This is supported by clear Christian references in the text, for example, Grendel is described as a descendant of Cain, one of the sons of Adam and Eve.Beowulf: Plot SummaryReconstruction of the Sutton Hoo Helmet. Source: Smart HistoryThe poem is named for the eponymous hero Beowulf, who is described as coming from the Germanic Geats tribe that had settled in the Gotland region of southern Sweden. However, the story starts by introducing King Hrothgar of Denmark, who built a mighty mead hall called Heorot to celebrate his prosperous reign. The noise from his hall angers a monster living in nearby swamplands, called Grendel, who proceeds to attack Hrothgars kingdom every night for 12 years.Beowulf hears about Hrothgars situation and is inspired to take up the challenge. He sails to Denmark with a small group of warriors determined to slay the monster. While he is welcomed, and a great feast is held in his honor, one of the Danes, called Unnfert, taunts Beowulf, suggesting that he is not worthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds by telling stories of his great exploits.Illustration of Grenel, by J.R. Skelton, 1908. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThat night, Grendel appears as expected, and Beowulf fights him bare-handed. He rips off the monsters arm, and the mortally wounded Grendel returns to his swamp to die.While the community is celebrating the fall of Grendel, his mother, a swamp hag, descends on the hall to get revenge. On the night she arrives, she murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgars most trusted advisors. This time, a company of warriors travels to the swamp, where Beowulf dives into the water and fights with Grendels mother, killing her with a sword forged for a giant. He also finds Grendels corpse and decapitates it, bringing his head back to the hall as evidence of his victory.As a result of these great victories, Beowulfs fame spreads. When he returns to his homeland, he recounts the stories to his king and queen. Beowulf gives his king most of the treasure he had been given by Hrothgar, and the king rewards him richly in return.Bees, Serpents, and Dragons in a Bestiary, Harley 3244, fols. 58v59, c. 1236-75, Source: The Getty BlogSoon after, both the king of the Geats and his son die. Beowulf is made the new king. He rules wisely for 50 years, but as an old man, a thief disturbs a burial barrow where a dragon is hiding a hoard of treasure. The enraged dragon starts attacking the Geats. Even though Beowulf feels his imminent death, he goes to fight the dragon, and with the help of his friend Wiglaf, kills the beast. But the dragon also bites his neck, and its venom kills him moments after the encounter. His body is burned and buried in a barrow.Beowulfs Historical SettingMap of Germanic tribe migrations between 400-600 CE. Source: University of CambridgeWhile the debate over when Beowulf was composed remains open, there is evidence that the epic tale was set in the historical world of 6th-century Scandinavia.First, many of the clans and people mentioned in Beowulf also appear independently in Norse sources. To take just one example, Healfdene is named as the father of Hrothgar and as the previous king of the Scyldings in Beowulf. He also appears in Old Norse sources as a king of the same people and as a son or brother of Frodi, a Viking who appears in many historical sources. Healfdene appears in two 12th-century Danish works, the Chronicon Lethrense and Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum. He also appears in later Icelandic works, including the Ynglinga saga, the Saga of Hrolf Kraki, and the Skjoldunga saga, which recounts the story of the historical clan he is said to have led.Certain historical events referenced also appear to be genuine. In Beowulf, there is a battle on the ice of Lake Vanern. It begins with the death of the Swedish king Ohthere, often regarded as the first historical king of Sweden, when his brother Onela attempted to seize his throne. Ohtheres sons flee to the Geats, currently ruled by Beowulfs brother Heardred. When Onela attacks the Geats, Headred is killed, so in vengeance, Beowulf decides to help one of the sons, Eadgils, retake the Swedish throne. This results in a battle between Eadgils and the Geats against Onela on the ice of the lake. This event also appears in the same Norse sagas, which describe a conflict between Onela, also known as Ali, and Eadgils, also known as Adils. The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is also mentioned by Gregory of Tours in his History of the Franks, confirming it as another historical event.Ragnark, color lithograph on paper by Louis Moe, 1898, in Alfred Jacobsen, Danmarks Historie i Billeder VII. Ragnark, Source: GetArchiveThis suggests that whoever composed the poem had a good grasp of the legendary history of Scandinavia. They also seem to have been familiar with Norse mythology, as Beowulfs battle with the dragon clearly mirrors the story of Thors final fight with the serpent monster Jormungandr at Ragnark. According to the prophecy, at the end of days, the god Thor will kill Jormungandr, but will die within seconds of his victory due to the amount of venom the serpent spits onto his body.Beowulf is then laid to rest according to Viking pagan tradition, with his body cremated and his remains placed in a burial mound.Is Beowulf a Useful Historical Source?Reconstructed Viking Age longhouse at the Trelleborg Museum. Source: National Museum of Denmark, CopenhagenDue to the clear Christian references in the surviving text of Beowulf, scholars have suggested that we be cautious when using Beowulf as a historical source for the Norse world of the 6th century. However, there is also evidence that the composers of Beowulf had some knowledge of the pre-Viking world of that time.In a recent publication, Beowulf and the North Before the Vikings, historian Tom Shippey cites archaeological evidence to support certain aspects of Norse life depicted in Beowulf. He cites a passage about taking away the mead-benches from many tribes. This suggests that as part of their territorial conquests within the Norse realm, the Scyldings destroyed the long halls of other tribes as a way of destroying their power centers. This kind of activity is now being supported by archaeologists at the University of Uppsala. They have found evidence of mead halls that have been deliberately smashed and vandalized but not plundered, suggesting ritual over violence.This suggests that Beowulf may contain interesting insights about the early Viking world, but like all our written sources for the Viking Age, written by Christian observers, everything must be evaluated with care to unpick genuine memory preserved through centuries of oral tradition from the projections of Christian authors who had already been living in a very different world for centuries.

Nestled high in the Caucasus Mountains bordering Russia, Svaneti is a place of jaw-dropping beauty, fierce independence, and unbroken traditions. For centuries, this remote region defied the mightiest empires, from the Mongols to the Russians, managing to preserve its unique identity in a way no other region could. It is hidden among snow-capped peaks and deep valleys, its smattering of ancient villages seemingly untouched by time. Today, Svaneti is an unrivaled, off-the-beaten-path destination for lovers of untamed wilderness and historychallenging to get to but incredibly rewarding.Svaneti: A Land That Bowed to No OneSvanetis famous towers, with the Caucasus in the background, photo by Arian Zwegers. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSvanetis story is primarily one of defiance. Shielded by the sheer vertiginous walls of the Caucasus, the Svansan ancient Georgian highland peopleresisted every army that tried to subdue them. Even when Mongol and Persian forces swept through the lowlands, they never managed to break Svanetis defenses. The region became Georgias very last refuge, where kings sent their most sacred relics for safekeeping.Medieval towers of Svaneti, photo by Arian Swegers. Source: FlickrDuring the Middle Ages, Svaneti thrived in its near-complete isolation. While the rest of Georgia fell under Ottoman and Persian influence, the Svans maintained their own way of life, governed by blood ties, unwritten codes of honor, and warrior traditions. The landscape is still dotted with medieval stone towers, once used as both homes and fortresses, a sign of constant vigilance against invaders. Because in this part of the world, one must never lower ones defenses.Svanetis mountains are the highest on the European continental shelf, photo by Panoramio. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen the Russian Empire expanded into the Caucasus in the 19th century, the Svans stood their ground once again. It wasnt until 1858 that they reluctantly accepted Russian rule, but even then, control remained superficial, and the area mostly autonomous. Being cut off from the rest of the empire geographically meant Svaneti was essentially left to rule over itself. The Soviet Era saw attempts to modernize and integrate Svaneti, yet its people remained fiercely attached to their traditions, language, and autonomy. Even nowadays, the region feels like a world aparta living relic of a time when mountains meant freedom.Best Historical Highlights in Svaneti You Shouldnt Miss1. Mestia: The Beating Heart of SvanetiPhoto of Mestia after dark, by Uwe Brodrecht. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMestia is the main town and gateway to the Svaneti region, which is known for its rich history. Walking through its narrow streets, youll find medieval stone towers rising above traditional Svan homes, remnants of a time when every family built its own fortress for survival. Aside from being defensive, these iconic towers, some over 1,000 years old, were symbols of lineage, power, wealth, and resilience.A visit to the Svaneti Museum of History and Ethnography is essential. This treasure trove holds gold and silver icons, ancient manuscripts, and intricate Svan artifacts, many of which were hidden away here during Georgias darkest times to prevent them from being stolen or destroyed. Youll also find illuminated gospels from the 9th century, rare medieval armor, and religious relics that once belonged to Georgian royalty.Mestia is where past and present meet. While modernity has reached this highland town (the main road from the capital, Tbilisi, is now fully sealed, albeit with a few oversized potholes), traditions remain strong. Locals still speak the Svan languagetotally unrelated to Georgian or Russianand ancient polyphonic singing echoes through the valley during feasts and celebrations.2. Ushguli: Europes Highest Inhabited VillageUshguli and its extraordinary towers, photo by Dito1993. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched at an altitude of 6,890 feet (2,100 meters), Ushguli is one of Europes highest continuously inhabited settlements and one of the most striking. With its cluster of ancient towers set against the backdrop of Mount Shkhara, Georgias tallest peak (17,027 feet/5,193 meters), Ushguli feels like a place untouched by time. It is no wonder it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.What makes Ushguli remarkable isnt just its (literal) breathtaking altitude but rather its exquisite isolation. The village has been inhabited for over a thousand years, with families passing down homes and fortresses from generation to generation. Many of the stone towers, which number more than houses, date back to the 9th and 10th centuries. They were built to protect against invaders and blood feuds, and some were inhabited well into the 20th century.Despite harsh winters and near-total cut-off from the outside world, people here still live by the old waysherding livestock, baking in traditional stone ovens, and preserving customs unchanged for centuries. Because of its remoteness, Ushguli was sometimes used as a place of banishment for criminals and outcasts. They had nowhere to escapethe mountains made sure of that!3. ChazhashiEverywhere you look, towers! Photo of Chazhashi by Franck Zecchin-Faure. Source: FlickrThe village of Chazhashi is a place of folkloric legends, home to one of the worlds most remarkable concentrations of medieval defensive towers. Unlike other parts of Georgia, where castles were built for rulers, in Svaneti, entire villages were fortified.Chazhashi is part of the UNESCO-listed Upper Svaneti region and is home to over 200 ancient structures, many of which likewise date back nearly a thousand years. Families would retreat inside during times of danger, sometimes living for months on stored supplies. Although external conflicts were rare, internal clashes were a regular part of Svan life.Walking through Chazhashi feels quite surreal. Stone towers rise in every direction, and you can still climb some of them for sweeping views of the Enguri River Valley. Unlike the more touristy Mestia, Chazhashi retains a raw, almost ghostly atmosphere. Many of its structures are now abandoned and make for fantastic explorations. If you want to feel the true historic spirit of Svaneti, this is where to go.4. The Church of St. Kvirike and IvlitaChurch of St Kvirike and Ivlita, photo by Natia an. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHidden away in the blink-and-youll-miss-it village of Kala, the unassuming 12th-century Church of St. Kvirike and Ivlita holds some of Georgias most beautiful medieval frescoes. Its vibrant murals, showcasing the artistry of Svaneti, have wonderfully withstood the test of time.Unlike grand European cathedrals, Svan churches were built in secrecysmall, humble, and often hidden in the mountains to protect them from invaders. This one is particularly striking because of its dramatic location, set against cliffs and wild landscapes. The frescoes inside depict biblical scenes with a distinctive mix of Byzantine and local artistic styles.One of the most fascinating aspects of this church is that it still plays a central role in local life. Every summer, Svans gather here for the Kvirikoba Festival, an ancient religious and pagan celebration that includes traditional feasts, horse races, boulder tossing, and sacred rituals. It is one of the rare chances foreign visitors have to witness a long-standing historical tradition that has remained unchanged for hundreds of years.5. The Enguri Hydro Power Dam: A Soviet Megastructure in SvanetiPhoto of Enguri dam, by Karelj. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Enguri Dam is an unmissable highlight for history lovers, although it is one of the regions most recent. It was built in the 1970s and is considered a Soviet-era engineering marvel. It has one of the tallest arch dams in the world, standing at 891 feet (271.5 meters), and feeds hydroelectric power not only to Georgia but also to the breakaway region of Abkhazia, making it one of the most politically complex and highly contentious structures in the Caucasus.The dam itself is a testament to Soviet ambition, designed to harness the raw power of the 132-mile-long Enguri River, which carves through the Svaneti mountains. Enguri is Europes tallest dam and, up until 2000, when China began constructing mega-dams in earnest, was the third tallest in the world. Beyond its gargantuan size, the Enguri Dam is also a symbol of Georgias complex relationship with its Soviet past and its present geopolitical struggles. Youll learn much more on this on guided tours of the dam, which are highly recommended!6. The Monastery of MkheriThere are no shortages of remote monasteries to visit in Georgia. Pictured above is Jvari, near Mtskheta. Photo by Alexxx1979. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIf you seek to visit a remote historical highlight, the Mkheri Monastery might just be the spot for you. It is an arduous pilgrimage well worth making. The remote 12th-century monastery sits high above Mestia and is accessible only by a grueling hike, but the reward is unmatched.In contrast to Georgias more well-known religious sites, Mkheri remains way off the tourist trail. Its isolated location was intentionalmonks built it in the mountains to escape invasions and practice their faith in peace. Few foreign visitors make it here, which makes the experience even more extraordinary. The silence is broken only by the wind, the occasional ringing of cowbells, and the distant murmur of mountain streams.7. The Nakipari Church of St GeorgeA fresco in the Nakipari church, depicting the torture of St George, photo by Teodore. Source: National Agency for the Cultural Heritage of GeorgiaDeep in the Iprari Valley, snuggled between mountain slopes and rushing rivers, stands the Nakipari Church of St. George, a site that embodies both the spiritual and warrior traditions of Svaneti. It was built in the 10th century near the village of Iprari, and houses frescoes painted by the famous Tevdore, one of Georgias most celebrated medieval artists. His work also appears in Zarzma Monastery and other important sites across the country.The frescoes inside Nakipari are strikingly bright, showing Christ, saints, and warrior figures in rich reds and deep blues. One of the most intriguing details is how some figures are depicted wearing traditional Svan warrior gear, showing the fusion of religious and local traditions that has defined Svanetis history since Christianity was introduced to the region in the 4th century.Nakipari is also home to a prized relica 9th-century icon of St. George, one of the most revered saints in the country. It was once at risk of being stolen, so locals moved it to Mestias Historical-Ethnographic Museum, where it is now safely displayed. Although some believe the country was named after St. George, debates as to its etymology abound. Mostly, because in Georgian, the country is named Sakartvelo, deriving from the Kartvelian people.

Colorized photo of the plague of Florence in 1348, as described in Boccaccios Decameron by Luigi Sabatelli, in the Wellcome CollectionMedieval Europe faced many problems caused by a growing population that reduced the value of peasant labor. Land scarcity also caused many peasants to be bound to manors owed by landlords. Consequently, feudal lords ended up controlling the daily lives of agricultural laborers (serfs) and suppressed any resistance in order to maintain the status quo. The system shaped medieval life in Europe for hundreds of years. However, it was decimated by the Black Death, along with other factors.When the Black Death BeganDance Macabre, from the Nuremberg Chronicles, by Michael Woglemut, 1493. Source: The MET, New YorkIn 1347, Europe was struck by a demographic catastrophe as the Black Death spread. Approximately half of the continents population was wiped out in four years. The plague was indiscriminate and brutal, shattering the core system on which feudalism was based as both landlords and peasants lost their lives. Soaring death tolls soon slowed down agricultural production and crippled economic activity across the continent. The demographic shock led to a rise in demand for peasant labor due to a severe labor shortage. As entire villages were wiped out, many lords started to pay higher wages to their workers in order to get them to cultivate their lands.The Plague in Rome by an unknown artist, c. 17th century, via Getty ImagesSoon, peasants in some struggling manors started to convert their newfound leverage into social and economic freedom through wage labor. Landlords now competed for workers. In many cases, peasants demanded and received higher wages. Serfs soon abandoned their ancestral manors for better offers.How Revolts Led to the Decline of FeudalismSerfs as depicted in the Queen Marys Psalter, 14th century. Source: Medievalminds.comThe growing power of the peasantry led to aristocratic concerns and prompted authorities to pass laws designed to realign economic systems. In England, the Ordinance of Labourers of 1349, for example, partnered with the Statute of Labourers in 1351 to set fixed pre-plague wage limits across the kingdom. The attempts to turn back the clock were, however, futile as prevailing labor shortages forced landlords to pay higher wages in contravention of the statutes.Tensions between the aristocrats and peasants across Europe soon led to open revolts that decried the re-imposition of old feudal wages. According to accounts from chroniclers, the French Jacquerie revolt, for example, led to chaos in 1358. Similarly, English peasants began to use organized rebellion to fight back against aristocratic control. The English Peasants Revolt of 1381 was, for example, massively popular.Although the revolts were eventually suppressed, they sent a clear message to the ruling class, and the nobles became afraid of causing more rebellions. They were also less likely to enforce the rules of serfdom. This fear helped speed up the shift to a system of free labor.Events After the UpheavalsSheep farming, from the Luttrell Psalter, c. 13201340The long-term result of the upheavals was the slow death of traditional serfdom. The nature of the manorial system on which feudalism was based had allowed it to function across lands that may otherwise have been difficult for a central government to control. But the plague made the system inconvenient for lords looking for reliable labor. As such, lords began to abandon the old system of labor service and corve, in favor of cash payments. Alternative types of land use also started to emerge such as sheep farming for wool, which required far fewer workers when compared to grain cultivation, for example. Increased wages, additionally, created a new class of prosperous peasants and yeomen, who could now buy their own land, blurring the old social divides.How Conflicts Hastened the ProcessThe spread of the Black Death in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East (13461353) Source: WikipediaLong-lasting conflicts, especially the Hundred Years War that spanned from 1337 to 1453 between England and France, also weakened the feudal system. The nature of warfare also changed. The traditional feudal knight on horseback was no longer the most effective soldier. Paid, trained soldiers were much more powerful.To fight the new kinds of wars, kings needed to raise their own professional armies instead of relying on their nobles to provide knights. To pay for these armies, kings created new systems of taxation that collected money directly from the general population. The system achieved two things. It made the king the central, most powerful figure in the land and stripped local lords of their authority.Economic Changes That Emerged After the Black DeathThe Unicorn Purifies Water, from the Unicorn Tapestries, French/Netherlandish, c. 1495-1505. Source: The Metropolitan MuseumAfter the Black Death, the old ways of life in Europe fell apart and almost everything changed. As the serfdom social system weakened, peasants embraced creative means to improve their lives. Some poor farm workers, for example, began to sell goods in markets that used to be controlled by the rich.The changes meant that wealth came more from the money one earned rather than the land that they inherited. The new economy also compelled many peasants to leave the countryside for towns to find better jobs. As a result, many cities grew bigger. A new middle class made up of skilled workers and sellers also emerged from the shift in economic dynamics. Ultimately, the terrible sickness led to a new age where people had more economic freedom.

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Locals overlooking the site of the Panguna Mine in Bougainville. Courtesy of John D Kuhns.The Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG) has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Indian resources company