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Parents are often warned against spoiling their children, and for good reason. Too much immediate gratification can easily lead to entitlement, a lack of responsibility, and self-destructiveness. This isnt just conjecture, at least not if we use the life of Pope Leo X as an example.Born into opulence and handed nearly everything he could have ever wanted on a silver platter, by the time Leo received the Keys to the Kingdom, there was little doubt what hed do with the wealth of the church. What little doubt remained was quickly removed when, upon election to the pontificate, he openly quipped, God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it.The Noble House of MediciHouse of Medici Crest on a wedding tapestry, 1589. Source: Westbury Fine ArtTo understand Leo X, you have to first understand the family he was born intothe House of Medici. A noble family from the Tuscany region of Italy, the Medici grew rich from participating in trade until they amassed enough wealth to open the famed Medici Bank, which at its prime was the largest bank in Europe and made the Medici one of, if not the, richest people on the continent.Calculating their wealth by todays standards is tricky, but while some people spend their wealth on houses or fancy clothes, the Medici were on a level of wealth so staggering that they essentially bought the city of Florence itself, amassing so much power that even though they were technically private citizens the city became their personal family fiefdom for many years and provided a base for them to rise to even greater heights later. The Palazzo Medici Riccardi, Palazzo Vecchio, and the Uffizi were all built with Medici wealth and remain some of Florences most impressive landmarks even today.Palazzo vecchio, photo by Matteo Kutufa. Source: UnsplashBy the time of Leos birth in 1475 his father Lorenzo, who was known by the modest title the Magnificent was so powerful that he more or less single handedly brought stability to the Italian Peninsula, helped Florence into its Golden Age, and kicked the Italian Renaissance into overdrive, all while dodging assassins and positioning his family for further assured greatness. This power and prestige allowed them to finance their building projects as well as patronize every major Italian Renaissance artist you could name, marry into several royal families, and position four members of their family into the papacy, the first of which would be Leo.Pope Leo X Portrait, by Raphael Sanzio, 1518. Source: Florence Museums CatalogueBaby Giovanni, the seventh of ten children, was destined for greatness at birth. His mother reportedly had a dream the night before he was born that she gave birth to a lion, a vision that served as both the inspiration for his eventual papal name and a premonition that seemed to indicate that he was headed for a life in the clergy. With the help of his familys influence, Leo became an abbot at age seven, the first of 42 offices he would hold before the age of 16. In fact, he became a full cardinal at age 13, a designation that had to be made in secret as he was technically too young to hold such a position, but there were few things that Medici influence couldnt obtain.By the time he was 16 and was old enough to officially enter the college of Cardinals and take up residence in Rome, he had already grown accustomed to a lifestyle of extravagance financed by his positions in the church and his willingness to sell offices to his friends and allies.Rome in the 1400s, from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThis behavior must have reached new levels ostentatiousness because his father, a lavish spender and practitioner of political intrigue second to none, was so concerned that one of his last acts on his deathbed was to write his son a letter advising him to turn away from his wicked ways and become more virtuous, tone down his spending on luxurious like silks, jewels, and sumptuous banquets, and try to be more modest in both lifestyle and demeanor warning there will be many who try to corrupt you. But Lorenzo made a small miscalculationhis son didnt require anyones help when it came to corruption.Titanic Fall, Meteoric RiseExpulsion of the Medici, After Raphael Sanzio, 17th century. Source: The Museum of New ZealandAfter Lorenzos death, power shifted to Leos older brother Piero, who lacked his fathers political acumen. This resulted in him bungling a series of political affairs so badly that his family palace was looted and his entire family was driven out of the city in 1494.With their power base now gone, it seemed like a fools bet that Leo would ever become Supreme Pontiff, but several fortuitous events eventually saw him regain all his brother had lost, including a bloodless return to power in Florence after several failed attempts to do so by force.By 1513, he had regained his familys wealth and stature just in time for Pope Julius II to die and a Conclave to be called. While he seemed a long-shot candidate at the outset only garnering a single vote during the first ballot, he was able to win the votes of younger members of the College of Cardinals, those who believed that his love of art and literature would make him a more moderate force within the Vatican, and of course thanks to piles of Medici gold being slipped into less than scrupulous hands. When he was finally confirmed in 1513, he remembered the final words of his father and celebrated with only a small, modest gathering.Just kidding. He held one of the most ludicrously over-the-top parades in the history of Rome, complete with newly-built triumphal arches, golden chariots, fountains that spouted wine in place of water, and of course, Leo himself atop a white horse under a canopy of imported silk. And this was only the beginning.Let us Enjoy ItPope Leo X Statue, Santa Maria in Aracoeli. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile many members of the church hoped that Leo X would usher in a golden age of reform, he soon proved them all wrong. Right away, he began installing his family into high-ranking positions within the church, including installing one cousin as the new Archbishop of Florence (and would eventually become Pope Clement VII) and another as the Duke of Urbino. He also continued to patronize the arts in the same way that his family had, keeping Renaissance greats like Michelangelo and Raphael on retainer and overseeing the grand renovation of Saint Peters Basilica. He was also reported to have donated vast amounts of gold to the poor of Rome. And then there were the parties.From the outset Leo Xs papal court became legendary for its lavish feasts and what one contemporary called idle and depraved amusements including masquerades, hunting trips, and jests where he would enthusiastically applaud all kinds of bizarre acts like organizing a fake Roman Triumph led by a burlesque performer who rode Hanno, the popes albino elephant.Hanno the Elephant, by Raphael, 1514. Source: PicrylAll of these activities cost money, which he spent at such an alarming rate that before long he had depleted the Churchs funds to such a degree that he began pawning palace furnishings, papal jewels, and even selling off statues of the Apostles. When even this wasnt enough, he took it one step further and began selling indulgencespayments for the forgiveness of sins. It was this act for which he would go down in infamy, as it put him on a collision course with a German named Martin Luther.The Protestant ReformationMartin Luther, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1528. Source: Cranach Digital ArchiveEven before Leo X became pope, Rome was a circus of vice and corruption, and several smaller reformation movements were smoldering in far-off corners of Europe. But the lavish spending being financed by indulgences was a bridge too far for many, including a German Priest named Martin Luther, who wrote a series of critiques collectively known as the 95 Theses, which, according to popular telling, he ceremonially nailed to the door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg. These writings, dedicated to Pope Leo himself, were disregarded, and after excommunicating Martin Luther it was back to partying.It isnt clear if he misunderstood the gravity of what was transpiring, or simply did not care, but either way his inability to grasp what was transpiring in Germany with Luther and his adherents provided much needed oxygen for the launch of the Protestant Reformation, a movement whose political, economic, and social ramifications are too numerous to list here.Pope Leo X Papal Bull Condemning Luther, 1515. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHis excommunication of Luther turned out to be one of his final acts because, despite his youth, he died in 1521 at the age of 45, leaving a Church that was by most measures teetering on the edge of the precipice. His spending was so out of control that he had actually borrowed against future earnings, meaning that his next two predecessors were hampered by the legacy of his patronage.While much of that money resulted in the creation of many now priceless treasures of the Renaissance, it also meant that the Church was fighting the Protestant Reformation with one hand tied behind its back at a time when it needed three. The resulting mess left him condemned for all time by many contemporary church scholars like Sigismondo Tizio, who summed up his reign by saying that Leo, chased nonsense, instead of paying serious attention to the needs of his

Red Cloud, Mahpiya Luta. Source: Akta Lakota Museum & Cultural CenterThe cause of Red Clouds defiance stemmed from the U.S. Armys 1865 fort construction in the Lakota territory. Here, the Army sought to protect American settlers using the Bozeman Trail, rushing to gold mines further west. The Trail cut through the Powder River Basin, traditional Lakota hunting grounds, and given to the tribe via an 1851 treaty.In June 1866, Red Cloud discovered the Armys fort building during peace talks at Fort Laramie (Wyoming). Angered, he vowed resistance. To the Americans future chagrin, theyd found a clever opponent for the duration of Red Clouds War.A Lakota Chief Like No OtherOglala War Chief Red Cloud. Source: Library of CongressBorn in 1822 near the Platte River Forks of Nebraska Territory, Red Cloud hailed from the Oglala Lakota Sioux tribe.At age three, his parents passed, whereupon his uncle, a respected leader named Chief Smoke, raised him. More than an uncle, Chief Smoke taught him about leadership, diplomacy, and the Lakotas strong communal ties. As a young warrior, Red Cloud demonstrated bravery and skill. At 16, he miraculously survived an arrow wound. He fought against the Cree, Shoshone, and other traditional enemies. By the time of this war, Red Cloud was a seasoned warrior.More importantly, Red Cloud possessed tactical skills and a strategic sense. He knew only an organized reaction allowed for any victory against the U.S. Army. Red Cloud proved politically and militarily adaptableand a firm believer in Lakota rights.The Leadup to the ConflictThe Bozeman Trail and U.S. Army Forts in Native Territories. Source: WikimediaAs mentioned, relations between the Lakota and the U.S. Army had been tense for years. Despite the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, continual American encroachment and expansion angered the Native signers.Conflict broke out in June 1866. When Red Cloud learned of the three forts, he saw these as a betrayal and stormed out. He refused any compromise, demanding the forts removal. Next, Red Cloud flexed his diplomatic and military skills. He traveled to Northern Arapaho and Cheyenne tribal councils, seeking unity.Though dependable allies, they lacked Red Clouds vision. By outlining their common goal and ultimate survival, the other tribes allied with Red Cloud. Soon, Red Clouds ranks swelled with warriors. These numbers would vary during the war.Problems From the StartDesign of Fort Kearny on the Bozeman Trail Source: WikimediaThough tasked with keeping the Bozeman Trail open and protecting settlers, the mission grew increasingly difficult. The logistical and tactical situations were not in the U.S. Armys favor. And Red Cloud cannily exploited their weaknesses without mercy.First, the three forts lay deep in Native territory, so getting supplies or reinforcements proved difficult. Red Clouds ambushes didnt help. Fighting took place during the brutal winters of Montana and Wyoming. Conducting a war in rugged country with harsh winters didnt help.Red Clouds Guerrilla WarFetterman Massacre from Harpers Weekly, March 1867. Source: Library of CongressBefore the war started, the Army thought Red Cloud intelligent and formidable. Still, they underestimated him greatly. With nearly 2,000 Native warriors at his disposal, he proved his mettle as a leader.Red Clouds guerrilla tactics came as a nasty surprise. He refused fixed battles instead relying on constant raids, ambushes, and hit-and-run tactics. The Native warriors kept the pressure constant, hitting supply trains and patrols and besieging the forts.Under Red Clouds directions, his warbands kept up daily raids on the forts. This strategy proved effective, leading to a critical battle on December 21, 1866: the Fetterman Massacre.Here, a Native warband prevailed after a short, sharp fight. One group, led by future famous Crazy Horse, lured a force under U.S. Army Captain Fetterman into a pitched battle, despite Army orders not to. Once over a nearby ridge, some 1,000 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Sioux fighters attacked, killing all 81 soldiers, including Fetterman. This inflicted the worst defeat on the U.S. Army during the Plains Wars (until the Battle of the Little Bighorn). Again, directly due to Red Clouds leadership, though sources vary if the Oglala war chief participated.Red Clouds Strategy ValidatedThe 1868 Fort Laramie Negotiations Source: National Anthropological ArchivesThe following two long years of war validated Red Clouds irregular warfare strategy. Their efforts kept the American soldiers holed up in their forts and not controlling the Boseman Trail or Powder River country.Throughout 1867 and into 1868, Red Clouds warriors maintained pressure as military expenses and casualties only grew. Finally, on May 29, 1868, both sides signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Army soon abandoned the forts and Native territory.Red Cloud holds one distinction that no other Native chief can claim: he beat the U.S. Army. His skills, willpower, and tactics forced the Americans to concede defeat.

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