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In 1845, Ireland experienced a heavy fog and more frequent rains than usual. Farmers were shocked and then horrified when they went to their fields to reap the potato harvest. The tubers were rotten on the vine, and the smell of decay filled the air and hovered over the fields. A major subsistence crop at the time, the loss of this staple and the subsequent famine, known as the Great Hunger, proved devastating to the people, economy, and history of Ireland.1. Potatoes Were Essential to the Irish PopulacePotatoes remain a dietary staple in many parts of the world today. Source: Agricultural Research Service, USDA via Wikimedia CommonsThe importance of potatoes to the Irish people in the mid-19th century can not be overstated. English invasions during the 16th and 17th centuries forced thousands of Irish from their land. Many relocated to western Ireland, where the soil was unsuitable for many crops. English immigrants were enticed to relocate and begin farming in the now-available lands of fertile northern Ireland. The English landlords often rented these estates to the Irish, who used this land to grow more valuable crops, such as wheat and corn, that could be used to pay rent. This led to an increased dependence on potatoes, which could be grown in poorer soil and took up little space. An acre of potato plants could produce food for a typical family for a year. At the time of the famine, about two-thirds of Irish farmers produced only potatoes for their families.2. The Famine Was Initiated by a Fungus-Like OrganismPhytophthora infestans infects the tubers and plants alike. Source: I.Sek, senior via Wikimedia CommonsThe cause of the potato rot and subsequent loss of the crop was a fungus-like organism. Phytophthora infestans, also known as potato blight or late blight, is more common in warm, wet conditions. An organism similar to a fungus called an oomycete, the disease affects the foliage and the potatoes themselves. Leaves rot and shrivel as they turn brown. Some white growth may be observed on the bottom of the leaves. Tubers get reddish-brown spots that soon turn soft and rot. Infected potatoes may not show infection at harvest, but they may rot later while in storage.This disease also affects tomatoes and occasionally related ornamentals such as petunias. It was first recorded in the United States in 1843, and it reached Belgium via a shipment of infected, yet visually normal, tubers. It spread through Europe from there and was first reported in Ireland at the Dublin Botanical Gardens in August 1845. While a year of harvest loss would have been significant, the infection continued, affecting subsequent harvests and exacerbating the effects. Since potatoes are propagated from the tubers themselves, less seed was available, further shrinking potential future crops.3. The Disease Wasnt the Only Contributing FactorAn 1849 sketch representing famine sufferer Bridget ODonnel and two of her children. Source: Illustrated London News via Wikimedia CommonsWhile the disease may have been the inciting factor for the start of the Great Hunger, it was far from the only factor at play. The ongoing tension between Ireland and England created a monoculture subsistence-farming situation that many Irish relied on. Not only was Ireland focused on one crop for subsistence, but generally, one specific variety of potato, the Lumper, was grown. A lack of crop diversity meant that the entire crop throughout the country was susceptible to disease. Relief efforts by other countries, particularly England, fell short and have been blamed for perpetuating the famine. Ongoing wet weather created the ideal conditions for the disease to prosper and spread.4. Food Exports Continued Despite StarvationBarley was one of Irelands money crops that had the potential to feed the masses. Source: Colin Smith / Geograph Britain and Ireland via Wikimedia CommonsDuring the Great Hunger, up to 75 percent of Irelands agricultural soil was dedicated to producing money crops like wheat and oats. These crops were exported largely to England. Despite the fact that these crops had the potential to feed thousands and were unaffected by the blight, exports to England continued throughout the course of the famine. This food was often shipped under military guard as people starved. These exports greatly contributed to the ongoing historical bitterness between Ireland and England.5. Famine Fever Was RampantA Typhoid sufferer. Source: Welcome Images via Wikimedia CommonsExacerbating the effects of spreading starvation, disease was soon moving like wildfire throughout the country. Known collectively as famine fever, illnesses such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, scurvy, and typhus were common, along with pests such as lice. Many people were forced to abandon their homesteads in search of work, and personal hygiene was not a priority in a time of survival. This led to the easy spread of disease.Starvation causes broad immunodeficiency, leaving even the healthiest susceptible to rapidly moving infections. Digestive diseases were common as people turned to foods they didnt normally consume in order to stay alive, including wild plants and, at times, spoiled food. It is believed that infections accounted for about 50 percent of famine deaths.6. Millions Died, Were Displaced, or Emigrated ElsewhereEmigrants Leaving Ireland by Henry Edward Doyle. Source: An Illustrated History of Ireland from AD 400 to 1800, by Mary Frances Cusack via Wikimedia CommonsAn accurate count of famine victims is impossible to know. However, it is estimated that approximately 12 percent of Irelands population perishedaround one million souls. Others were forced to leave home to look for work or sustenance, with many going so far as to leave the country entirely. Between 1845 and 1855, millions left Ireland in search of survival. About two million went to America and Australia, and approximately 750,000 to other areas of Britain. The exodus of the Irish people was the largest single population movement of the 19th century.A map illustrating the Irish Diaspora. Source: Allice Hunter via Wikimedia CommonsThe Irish Diaspora resulted in changes that rippled through the history of several countries, including the United States. The Irish who arrived during the Great Hunger period played an influential role in US history, including impacts on the building of the Transcontinental Railroad, the development of major cities, and the early labor union movement. Roughly 15 percent of todays US citizenry can claim Irish ancestry.A famine memorial in Dublin. Source: William Murphy via Wikimedia CommonsUnfortunately, many were waiting to be transported to their destinations on coffin ships. These overcrowded, largely unsanitary ships had captains who simply sought to make a profit. Mortality on these boats ranged from 5 to 30 percent, often from disease caused by poor conditions.7. It Led to One of the Earliest International Fundraising EffortsA memorial to the Great Hunger in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Source: Mincebert via Wikimedia CommonsDespite Britains lackluster response, other entities from around the globe came together to attempt to alleviate some of Irelands suffering. These efforts are often considered one of the earliest international responses to a natural disaster. Fundraising started as early as 1845 and picked up in subsequent years.The city of Calcutta in India sent over 16,500 pounds of relief funds, while Bombay sent 3,000. The Society of Friends, better known as the Quakers, in the United States, collected supplies, including clothes, food, seed, and bedding to send, giving over 200,000 pounds worth of relief to the Irish people. The Choctaw people of the United States, who had suffered their own torment on the Trail of Tears just a few years earlier, sent a cash donation (equaling about $5,000 in todays funds). This initiated a lifelong friendship between the town of Midleton, where the funds ended up, and the Choctaw Nation. In 2017, a sculpture commemorating the Choctaws gift was dedicated in a Midleton park.8. Irelands Population Has Never RecoveredIreland via satellite, 2023. Source: Jacques Descloitres, NASA via Wikimedia CommonsAs the Great Hunger caused unprecedented death and displacement, it took a toll on Irelands human population. Pre-famine population levels were rising, quadrupling between 1700 and 1845. As the famine began, Irelands estimated population was over eight million people. By 1851, the Irish population, which had been predicted to be nine million by that time, was reduced to approximately six million. As the famine wound down, the population of the country continued to decline and would remain declining for more than a century, finally ceasing in 1951. Political and economic instability led to continuing emigration long after the famine was considered over.A 2011 crowd in Moneygall, Ireland, watching for visiting US President Barack Obama. Source: White House via Wikimedia Commons2022 census data showed the first population levels over five million since 1851, a 7.6 percent increase from the last data in 2016. In addition, these increases were reflected across all of the countrys counties. As of 2023, Irelands population has still not recovered to pre-famine levels, hovering at 5.2 million people.

The Napoleonic Wars are among the most significant conflicts in European history. The conflict encompassed the entirety of the European continent, from Portugal in the west to Russia in the east. Monuments and museums have since been built around several significant battlefields from the Napoleonic era to offer a fascinating experience for travelers interested in this period of European history. Read on to find out about what to see and do at four of the most interesting Napoleonic battlefields in Europe.1. AusterlitzThe Battle of Austerlitz by Franois Grard, 1810.Source: Palace of Versailles, ParisThe Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805 is widely regarded as Napoleons greatest battlefield victory. In his quest to defeat his Austro-Russian enemy in a single stroke, Napoleon feigned weakness by evacuating from the Pratzen Heights on the eve of battle, encouraging the Coalition army to take the offensive.Napoleon deliberately weakened his right flank, drawing the Coalition army down the Pratzen Heights on the morning of December 2. The men of Marshal Davouts III Corps, who arrived from Vienna in the early hours and were still taking up their positions, fought an effective defensive battle around the villages of Sokolnitz and Telnitz to tie up half the Coalition force. With the Pratzen sufficiently weakened, Napoleon sent General Soults IV Corps to seize the heights, surprising the enemy as the morning mist burned away to reveal the mass of French infantrymen marching up the hill.Although there was much fighting to be done in the day, particularly as the Russian Guards advanced to contest the Pratzen, Napoleons bold tactical maneuver gave him control of the field and split the Coalition army in half, preventing it from coordinating its counterattacks against Napoleons army. By the end of the day the Coalition army was divided into three, with Prince Pyotr Bagrations column in good condition but retreating towards the northeast, the remnants of the Allied center falling to the east, and the Allied left fleeing across the frozen Satschan Ponds in the south.The Cairn of Peace on the Pratzen Heights. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2015. Source: Jimmy ChenThe Austerlitz battlefield is located to the southeast of Brno in what is now the Czech Republic. The dominant feature of the battlefield are the gently sloping Pratzen Heights, where a large bell-shaped monument known as the Cairn of Peace was built shortly before the outbreak of World War I. The Battle of Austerlitz Museum with exhibits and artifacts relating to the battle is located next to the memorial.Several small monuments are dotted around the battlefield. Towards the north, near the E50 highway, stands the hill of ur, which served as Napoleons command post during the morning of the battle. The hill offers a panoramic view of the battlefield and with a bronze map illustrating the dispositions of the two armies at the beginning of the battle.Moving south along the French line, visitors can see the museum at lapanice at the old rectory, which served as Soults headquarters during the battle. Continuing on the road past Kobylnice, the village of Sokolnice boasts a small castle which served as a defensive position for Davouts men on the French right and now functions as a retirement home.Map of the Battle of Austerlitz. Source: Napoleon & EmpireOn the eastern half of the battlefield, the Old Post House (Star Pota) near Kovalovice was the headquarters of Marshal Murat on November 28, a few days before the battle. When Napoleon abandoned the Pratzen, the building was taken over by Prince Bagration and served as his headquarters during the day of the battle. On the evening of the battle, Napoleon himself stayed at the Old Post House and conducted preliminary negotiations for an armistice with the Austrians. The building now serves as a hotel and restaurant and has a small exhibition area dedicated to the battle.The small town of Slavkov u Brna, then known by its German name of Austerlitz, gave its name to the famous battle. The town itself was located behind Allied lines on December 2, 1805 and did not see any fighting. The towns main attraction is the imposing Renaissance castle built by the Kaunitz family, whose most famous representative, Prince Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, served as chancellor of the Habsburg Empire for four decades during the second half of the 18th century.Visitors can take a guided tour of the castle, where the preliminary armistice was concluded by Napoleon and Prince von Liechtenstein on December 6. The outbuildings at the front of the castle hosts an underground museum that rivals the battlefield museum on the Pratzen Heights.2. BorodinoThe Battle of Borodino by Peter von Hess, 1843. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St PetersburgThe Battle of Borodino on September 7, 1812 was the bloodiest single day of combat during the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon invaded Russia in June 1812, the outnumbered Russian army under Mikhail Barclay de Tolly fell back towards Moscow. Barclays strategy, though effective, made him unpopular among his subordinates, and in late August General Mikhail Kutuzov was appointed supreme commander with orders to defend Moscow.Kutuzov took up a position on the Smolensk-Moscow road at Borodino, around 80 miles to the west of Moscow. He deployed the bulk of his army around the Moscow road. While Kutuzov ordered the construction of the Shevardino Redoubt to strengthen his vulnerable left flank, this was abandoned after a bloody skirmish two days before the main battle on September 5.The Battle of Borodino began early on September 7, as Napoleons stepson Viceroy Eugene de Beauharnais launched an attack against the Russians in the village of Borodino. Napoleons main attack was directed against the Russian left under the command of Prince Bagration near the village of Semenovskoye, while General Poniatowskis Polish Corps attempted to outflank the Russian left along the overgrown Old Smolensk Road further south.The Great Redoubt at Borodino. Source: Jimmy ChenDuring the bitter fighting around Semenovskoye, Bagration was mortally wounded while directing a counterattack against the enemy. As Kutuzov moved to strengthen his left, Eugene launched wave after wave against the Grand Redoubt in the Russian center, manned by General Nikolay Raevskys VII Corps. The French briefly occupied the Grand Redoubt before the young Russian artillery commander General Kutaisov led a successful counterattack at the cost of his own life.By the early afternoon, the Russians fell back from Semenovskoe in some disorder. Napoleon was preparing to commit his Imperial Guard to the fray when he received news that Russian Cossacks had outflanked his left and were threatening his baggage train. Although the Cossack raid was easily beaten back by French infantry, it gave the Russian left valuable time to establish a second defensive line.The withdrawal of the Russian left exposed the southern flank of the Great Redoubt, which was taken by French cavalry. With thousands of French cavalrymen swarming around the field behind the Redoubt, Barclay de Tolly gathered up cavalry reinforcements to countercharge the exhausted French horsemen. After an intense cavalry duel, the French retired to their lines.The Battle of Borodino was a tactical draw, but owing to heavy casualties Kutuzov chose to withdraw from the field the following morning. While this allowed Napoleon to occupy Moscow, a week later, Napoleons failure to win a decisive victory at Borodino extinguished any faint hopes of a successful campaign.Monument marking Kutuzovs command post at Borodino. Source: Jimmy ChenThe field of Borodino is dominated by the main battlefield monument constructed in 1839 on the Great Redoubt. Prince Bagrations remains were transferred to a grave at the foot of the monument, which was destroyed during German occupation in World War II. The main Borodino battlefield museum is a short distance away.The Borodino battlefield is full of other smaller monuments commemorating Russian units who fought in the battle. The only monument to the French army is at the Shevardino Redoubt, which served as Napoleons command post on the day of the battle. Kutuzovs command post at Gorki to the east of Borodino village is marked by a granite monument topped by an eagle.Another major landmark is the Spaso-Borodinsky Convent near Semenovskoye, founded by Margarita Tuchkova on the spot where her husband, General Alexander Tuchkov, fell in battle. A small memorial chapel was initially built on the site, which expanded to become a full monastic complex that remains active to this day.The grave of General Dmitry Neverovsky lies a short distance beyond the convent. Neverovskys 27th Division saw considerable action around Semenovskoye and suffered heavy losses. While Neverovsky survived the battle, he was mortally wounded at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and buried in the German city of Halle. His remains were transferred to the Borodino battlefield as part of the centennial commemoration in 1912.Borodino can be reached from Moscow by train to Mozhaisk and a short taxi ride. Travelers interested in Napoleonic history should also take time to visit the Museum of the Patriotic War of 1812 near Red Square and the Borodino Panorama Museum near Victory Park in Moscow.3. LeipzigAt the Battlefield near Leipzig by Johann Peter Krafft, 1839. Source: German Historical Museum, BerlinThe Battle of Leipzig, fought over four days between October 16 and October 19, 1813, was the bloodiest battle in world history until the First World War more than a century later. It was one of the most decisive battles of the Napoleonic period and marked the end of the German Befrieungskriege (War of Liberation) of 1813.Following Napoleons disastrous Russian campaign of 1812, an Allied Russo-Prussian army swept through northern Germany in spring 1813. Although Napoleon defeated the Allies at Ltzen and Bautzen in Saxony and a summer armistice held for two months, the Austrians joined Russia and Prussia in the Sixth Coalition at the beginning of August.The Sixth Coalition divided its forces between three armies: the Army of Bohemia under the Austrian general Prince Schwarzenberg, the Army of Silesia under Prussian Field Marshal Blcher, and the Army of the North under Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden, formerly Marshal Bernadotte. The Allies adopted the so-called Trachenberg Plan, whereby each of the three armies would maneuver to attack Napoleons marshals but avoid battle against Napoleon himself without enjoying overwhelming numerical superiority.By applying the principles of the plan, the Army of the North defeated Marshal Oudinot at Grossbeeren on August 23 and Marshal Ney at Dennewitz on September 6, while the Army of Silesia emerged victorious over Marshal MacDonald at the Katzbach on August 26. However, after Schwarzenberg attacked Marshal Gouvion St-Cyr at Dresden on August 26, Napoleon brought his main army to reinforce St-Cyr and emerged victorious on the 27th.The Battle of Leipzig. Map of positions on October 18, 1813. Source: Napoleon & EmpireThe Army of Bohemia spent several weeks recovering from the defeat at Dresden but was ready to advance against Napoleon in October. By mid-October, the three main Allied armies were converging on Napoleon at Leipzig, setting the stage for the Battle of the Nations.Napoleons plan at Leipzig hinged on defeating Schwarzenberg to his south before Blcher and Bernadotte could arrive in force from the north. Schwarzenbergs attack on October 16 was delayed by unfavorable terrain and met stiff resistance from Napoleon and Poniatowski. The Allied line came under heavy pressure, and the opportunistic Marshal Murat led 5,000 cavalrymen in a daring charge against the Allied center. Murats troopers threatened to charge up the hill where the three Allied monarchs (Emperor Francis I of Austria, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, King Frederick William III of Prussia) were stationed. The charge lost momentum as it negotiated a ravine at the bottom of the hill, and a timely counterattack by Allied light cavalry forced Murat to withdraw.Napoleons failure to defeat Schwarzenberg in the villages to the south of Leipzig on the first day of battle eliminated any chance of victory. In the northern sector, marshals Ney and Marmont held off the leading elements of the Army of Silesia. After a relatively quiet second day of battle, hostilities raged with higher intensity on the 18th. The Army of Silesia was now on the field in full force, and Bernadotte arrived in the afternoon. In a dramatic episode, several thousand Saxons defected from Napoleons cause and joined the Allies.Monument to the Battle of the Nations. Source: Stiftung VlkerschlachtdenkmalOn the morning of October 19, Napoleon withdrew from Leipzig, leaving marshals Macdonald and Poniatowski to fight a rearguard action to cover his retreat. Under heavy pressure from the Allies, panicked French sappers destroyed the bridge across the River Elster and left a large contingent of their comrades stranded. A heavily wounded Poniatowski drowned while attempting to swim across the river.Much of the Leipzig battlefield has been built over, and the surrounding villages that saw the most intense fighting have since been absorbed into Leipzigs urban sprawl. However, the great battle was commemorated by the impressive Vlkerschlachtdenkmal or Monument to the Battle of Nations, built near the site of Napoleons command post during the battle. Building work began in 1898 and was completed by the 100th anniversary of the battle in 1913. Standing at 91 meters, the monument features a viewing platform offering a panorama of the battlefield. A small museum is located at the base of the monument.With the aid of battlefield accounts and maps, visitors to Leipzig also can get a sense of the action closer to the ground by visiting the southern suburbs of Markkleeberg, Wachau, Liebertwolkwitz, and Probstheida, the scene of the heaviest fighting on the first day of battle, as well as the northern suburb of Mckern, which saw heavy clashes involving the Army of Silesia on the first and third days of the battle.4. WaterlooThe Duke of Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo by Robert Alexander Hillingford. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Battle of Waterloo, fought near Brussels on June 18, 1815, was the last major battle of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon returned to power in Paris on March 20, the Allied powers of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain responded by pledging 150,000 men each to defeat him. As large Russian and Austrian armies lumbered their way from the east, Napoleon formed the Army of the North and hoped to defeat the British and Prussian armies under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal Blcher respectively.On June 15, Napoleon marched on Brussels via Charleroi, aiming to split Wellington and Blcher. Both Allied armies were deployed on a wide front, with Wellington fearful of an outflanking maneuver to cut off his supply lines to the North Sea and the Prussians equally concerned about protecting their communications to northern Germany.The campaign began well for Napoleon, who joined Marshal Grouchy to defeat the Prussians at Ligny on June 16. Further to the west, Marshal Ney fought an inconclusive battle with Wellington at Quatre Bras, but the Prussian defeat forced Wellington to fall back. Leaving Grouchy to keep an eye on Blcher, whom he believed was retreating eastwards, Napoleon joined Ney to go after Wellington.Contrary to Napoleons expectations, the Prussians retreated north to maintain contact with Wellington. Confident that Blcher would come to his aid, Wellington prepared to meet Napoleon at Mont-Saint-Jean to the south of Waterloo.Map of the Battle of Waterloo. Source: Napoleon & EmpireHeavy rain on the 17th delayed Napoleon as he took up his positions on a lower ridge line facing Wellington on the morning of the 18th. A diversionary attack by Napoleons brother Jerome Bonaparte against the farm of Hougoumont on Wellingtons right eventually drew in thousands of men on both sides throughout the day.Napoleons main attack was targeted at Wellingtons center near the farm of La Haye Sainte. Wave after wave of French infantry were repulsed by British counterattacks at heavy cost to both sides while heavy fighting continued at Hougoumont and at La Haye Sainte.By the early afternoon, an unidentified column of men appeared on the horizon on Napoleons right. To Napoleons horror, this was General Blows Prussian IV Corps, which was in full strength after avoiding the carnage at Ligny. At around four in the afternoon, Blow attacked Napoleons right flank at Plancenoit, forcing him to divert his scarce reserves.As the evening approached, Marshal Ney desperately threw his cavalry against Wellington and was repulsed by British infantry squares. A combined attack by artillery and infantry proved more effective and the French captured La Haye Sainte at around six. While Ney sought to exploit the success by sending the Imperial Guard, this proved too little too late, as General Zietens Prussian I Corps linked up with Wellingtons left and allowed the latter to reorganize his lines, repulsing the attack from the Guard before signaling a general advance.The Lion Mound at Waterloo. Source: Domaine de la Bataille de Waterloo 1815The battlefield of Waterloo attracts 300,000 visitors each year and is easily accessible by car or train from Brussels. The dominant feature of the battlefield is the Lion Mound, an artificial hill constructed in the early 1820s on the site where Prince William of Orange, later King William II of the Netherlands, was wounded during the battle. The mound offers an expansive view of the battlefield but makes the terrain appear flat.A circular building at the foot of the Lion Mound houses the Waterloo Panorama, painted in 1912 and depicting one of the great French cavalry charges. Adjacent to the panorama is the underground museum curated to modern standards which opened in 2015 for the bicentennial commemorations.There are plenty of monuments dedicated to specific units that fought in the battle, particularly at the crossroads near La Haye Sainte, which saw intense fighting as Napoleon attempted to crash through Wellingtons line. The farm itself is private property and not open to the public, though further afield the large farm complex at Hougoumont is accessible. There are several memorials to French and Prussian units at Plancenoit but no museums.Napoleons last headquarters at Le Caillou is located to the south of Plancenoit on the main Charleroi-Brussels highway and hosts a small museum. Wellingtons headquarters, in the town of Waterloo itself to the north of the battlefield, is now home to the Wellington Museum. In addition to artifacts and exhibits from the battle, visitors can see the room where the British commander wrote his Waterloo dispatch the morning after the battle.

Throughout the course of history, decisions have been made that have dramatically impacted the evolution of events to follow. We take a look at five examples from the past that, if handled in a different way, would have led to completely different outcomes.How a Long Speech Saved a LifeTheodore Roosevelt speaking from a car in Milwaukee on Oct. 14, 1912, shortly before a gunman shot and wounded him in front of the Gilpatrick Hotel. Source: WikimediaA long speech, and where it was stored, saved Theodore Roosevelts life. It was a whopping 50 page-long speech titled Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual, that Roosevelt needed to carry, and keep his hands free. So, he decided to fold the speech in half and tuck into the breast pocket of his coat. It was there that John Schrank aimed the gun and shot Roosevelt.Roosevelt for president banner, 1932. Source: Smithsonian InstitutionBetween the coat and the thick chunk of paper, the bullet didnt make it into the lung. It didnt stop him from giving his speech, delivering the famous line, Friends, I shall ask you to be as quiet as possible. I dont know whether you fully understand that I have just been shotbut it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose. His chances of survival would have been drastically decreased had the shot gone anywhere else, or if he decided to carry his speech somewhere else.King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinettes CarriagePortrait of Marie Antoinette, unknown author, after Jean-Baptiste Andr Gautier-Dagoty, after 1775. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Antoine-Lcuyer, Saint-Quentin, FranceThe French Revolution started on May 5, 1789. France was in chaos, and things were looking dangerous for the royal family. Together King Louis XVI and family decided to leave Paris and flee to Montmedy. The plan was to connect with those loyal to royalty. This would later be known as the Flight to Varennes, at the end of June 1791 June 20-21.Even though this would be dangerous, it was decided that it would be the best decision. This whole plan was riddled with issues, such as delays due to other people or getting lost, and damaged carriages. What small decision made about the escape that could have changed history is the choice of carriage used. While they did use disguises instead of using two smaller carriages and splitting up, they decided to use a bigger fancier carriage and travel together. Not only was it slower, but they were recognized, arrested, and later executed.The unfortunate Marie Antoinette Queen of France at the place of execution, 1793. Source: The British MuseumWhile we cant for sure say what would have happened if they had used a different carriage, there are several possibilities. They might still have been recognized even disguised as they attempted to flee to safety. They might not have been given support outside of France. They might never have come back to the country and in power, or they could have ended up back on the throne and today France could have been one of the European countries to have a modern monarchy.Laundry and the Day That Music DiedThe Day that Music Died newspaper clipping on February, 3, 1959, left to right Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J. P. Richardson. Source: Vancouver Sun, Associated PressOn February 3, 1959, a plane crash became known as the day that music died due to the deaths of three important people in the music industry. Buddy Holly was born on September 7, 1936. He and his band were a part of the Winter Dance Party tour that included other artists including Ritchie Valens and J. P. Richardson.It was a long tour, cramped conditions, and the buses were inadequately equipped. Members of the tour suffered from a variety of illnesses. Holly made the decision to charter a small plane which was going to take him and his band members, Tommy Allsup and Waylon Jennings to the next leg of the tour. However, Richardson was sick with the flu and Jennings made the decision to give him his spot. Allsup and Valens did a coin toss and Valens won and scored a spot on the plane.Weather conditions caused the pilot to lose control of the plane. All four on board died.. If it hadnt been for a coin toss or the flu it would have been Allsup and Jennings on board with Holly. Moreover, if the tour hadnt been so grueling Holly might never have charted the plane.How Johann Ralls Note Caused a Battle LossSurrender of Col. Johann Rall [Battle of Trenton] circa 1909 reproduction of work by E. Percy Moran. Source: Library of CongressImagine being unable to read an important war missive, and deciding to ignore it in favor of card games became the reason you lost a battle, and, indeed, an entire war. That was what happened to Johann Rall and the United States Revolutionary War. The Battle of Trenton was a major turning point in the war. Washington and others decided to surprise the British troops who were waiting for the Delaware to freeze and cross the river to surprise attack them. Except it wasnt a surprise.Colonel Johann Rall was a German stationed at Trenton, New Jersey. At the end of December in 1776, George Washington crossed the Delaware. At the time, Rall was playing a card game. Whether it was arrogance or not understanding the timing, he chose to ignore the spy who came with crucial information about the movements of George Washington. When passed the note, instead of reading it he tucked it into his pocketwhere it would be later found. What would have happened if the note had been read and the element of surprise lost? Rall did not live long enough to fully regret this decision. He died not long after the battle due to a mortal wound.How Stanislav Petrov Saved the WorldStanislav Petrov memorial stoneStanislav Petrov was born on September 7, 1939 in Russia. He became a lieutenant colonel in the Soviet Air Defense Forces. He might just be responsible for saving the world from making one quick decision to not take action.The Cold War and tension between the United States and Soviet Union was at an all-time high. Just outside of Moscow was Serpukhov-15 was a military town. Petrov was stationed there as the officer on duty on September 26, 1983 watching for attack warnings.Cartoon referring to efforts by the Soviet Union and the United States to win friends during the Cold War, 1955. Source: National Library of WalesThey used a newer system called an Oko that was designed to alert the Soviets if missiles were being sent from the United Statesa sign of nuclear weapons which would then mean the Soviets were prepared to respond in kind. That night the system went off, the data showed 5 missiles incoming. Petrovs actions were supposed to be clear. Instead, he made the decision to wait, driven by the fact that the Oko was untested and new and that it was weird that an attack would consist of only 5 missiles.If Petrov had been too quick to make the decision that the United States was sending missiles and sent an attack back, it would have started a Nuclear War that would have destroyed life as we know it. That important decision to hesitate could have cost him had his intuition not been correct. He died May 19, 2017 a hero, although it wasnt until the fall of Soviet Union that his actions became known world-wide.