In the 19th century, the Mtis hunted bison for food and economic purposes. The Mtis emerged as a distinct group, with their own culture, language, and political leaders between the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, through the intermarriage of French and Scottish fur traders and settlers with women from Cree, Ojibwe, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux communities. While they were not the only group involved in major bison hunts across the Plains and the Canadian Prairies, their well-organized and large-scale hunts played an important role in the near extinction of bison herds in the Canadian Plains. After the establishment of the Hudsons Bay Company and the North West Company, the Mtis became active participants in the fur trade. They provided a variety of bison-derived goods, including bison hides, pemmican, and eventually, after the severe depletion of bison herds, bison bones, and skulls.From the Dog to the Horse DaysHeaddress probably belonging to the Blackfoot of the Plains, 1840s. Source: Brooklyn MuseumHistorians typically divide the history of the North American Plains and the people who lived there into two distinct phases known as the Dog Days and the Horse Days. The ancestors of the people who would become the people of the Plains, including the Siksika (or Blackfoot), Nakoda Oyadebi (Assiniboine), Stoney, Cree, and Ojibwa, experienced significant environmental changes. This period saw the retreat of glaciers and the extinction of woolly mammoths and giant bison. Grasslands emerged and expanded, often at the expense of parklands. Humans adapted by adjusting their seasonal rounds, as evidenced by various projectile points excavated across all three Prairie provinces and north into the boreal forest. During the Dog Days, Plains people were already burying their dead in pits dug covered with rock cairns. Their graves were painted in red ochre and decorated with dentalium shell beads from the Pacific coast, grizzly bear claw necklaces, and shells from as far south as the Gulf of Mexico, probably traded up the Mississippi River.The Sioux were one of the most feared competitors of the Mtis, 1891, engraving by Frederic Remington. Source: Amon Carter Museum of American ArtBison herds had been roaming the North American Plains for centuries before the arrival of Europeans. First Nations depended on them for food and used their skins to make blankets, coats, hats, and gloves. They also used bison dung as fuel. Before horses were reintroduced in the mid-18th century, hunters chased bison herds on foot during the so-called Dog Days, with the help of their loyal dogs.By the end of the Dog Days, approximately 2,000 years ago, the use of bow and arrow became widespread across the Plains and the Canadian Prairie provinces, namely Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Hunters would drive bison over cliffs, a practice now known as bison jump, or into traps, also called pounds, after imitating the bleating of a lost bison calf.The Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump (known among the Blackfoot as Estipah-skikikini-kot), at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in southern Alberta, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981; by then it had been used for nearly 6,000 years. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the mid-1600s, the first horses started to appear among the First Nations of the Plains, brought north along trading routes. One century later, they had completely revolutionized their lives and warfare. By 1754, horses were common among the Siksika/Blackfoot, and by 1776, the Nakoda/Assiniboine owned horses too.It was in the Canadian Prairie Provinces, particularly in what is now Manitoba, that Mtis culture emerged in the early decades of the colonization of Canada. This unique culture originated in the late 1700s from the unions of European fur traders and Cree women in the Red River area, near present-day Winnipeg.Bison HuntersAmerican Bison or Buffalo, lithograph by John Hames Audubon, (1785-1851). Source: Brooklyn MuseumBison hunting was a crucial part of Mtis culture. Prior to the 1840s, and especially before the 1870s when bison herds began to decrease, the Mtis communities of the Red River Settlement made their living by hunting bison on the Plains. They would embark on two major hunts, following the animals migrations in late spring or early summer, and in the fall. Men would load and aim while riding their carefully trained, swift horses (also known as buffalo runners) at full speed alongside bison herds. They usually dropped a glove to mark their kill. Women and children followed suit in their Red River carts.While men did most of the hunting, women were in charge of taking care of the carcasses and turning them into pemmican (from the Cree word pimikan, meaning manufactured grease), a calorie-rich and highly nutritious mixture of dried meat, melted fat, coarse powder, and different types of berries.The Great Britain War Office Topographical Department drew this map showing the proposed route connecting Lake Superior to the Red River Settlement, 1870. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe hunting parties of the Mtis were often large and well-organized, sometimes consisting of up to 2,000 people. These groups were led by appointed chiefs, and during bison hunts, the camps operated with a strict military-like routine. Guides were in charge of overseeing camp operations as they moved from one location to another, with each guide serving for just one day. At night, Red River carts were carefully placed in a circle to offer protection from other Plains Nations. Soldiers and captains took control of the camp.Before every hunt, elders called for informal assemblies attended by hunters, generals, chiefs, and several captains. In winter, trains of Red River carts would return to the Red River Settlement, carrying thousands of bison robes and dried meat.A pemmican tin found in an abandoned boat at Erebus Bay, King William Island, 1859. Source: Royal Museums GreenwichSome of the bison robes were sold, while others were used for blankets and bedding or manufactured into leather for boots, mocassins, and pemmican bags. Pemmican bags were durable, easily transported, and quite resistant, as they could hold about 100 pounds. Older and hardened hides were cut up and made into shaganappi, then wrapped around the Red River carts wheels or saved for emergency repairs.Bison meat was usually made into pemmican, but the tongues and humps were usually eaten immediately, as they were considered delicacies to be enjoyed right after the hunt. Bison horns were either used for coat hangers andkitchen utensils or turned into powder.Clashing With the SiouxA group of Sioux men and children, 1890s. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Mtis were not the only group relying on bison hunting for their livelihood. Bison hunting was vital to the survival of other First Nations, including the Siksika (Blackfoot), one of the three groups that made up the Blackfoot Confederacy, and the Dakota (Sioux). The increased European demand for bison robes led to heightened tensions between these groups. This resulted in a series of skirmishes between the Mtis and the Sioux, which eventually turned former rivals into bitter enemies. These tensions reached a peak in the 1851 Battle of Grand Coteau. At the time, the Sioux (or Ohthi akwi, which translates as Seven Council Fires), one of the many First Nations referred to as Plains Indians, inhabited a large region in the United States covering present-day Colorado, North and South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, and Nebraska.The Battle of Grand Couteau took place southwest of Butte in North Dakota, photograph by Ryan Stone. Source: UnsplashThey were relatively new to the area. Before the 17th century, they used to live in the Mississippi Valley and around Lake Superior in Wisconsin and northern Minnesota but were forced to migrate west after repeated warfare with the Iroquois and the Ojibwe.The Battle of Grand Coteau began on July 13th, near Dog Den Butte (also known as Maison du Chien), southwest of Butte in North Dakota, a territory of narrow ravines and sharp hills. A few miles to the west of Dog Den Butte lies Strawberry Lake. Traders and bison hunters used to stop here to water their horses and fish on their way westward. The battle took place between a Mtis buffalo hunting party from St. Franois Xavier and the Pabaska (Cut Head) Upper Yanktonai Sioux band led by Chief Medicine Bear. It lasted for one day and ended with the withdrawal of the Sioux.The decline of the bison population in North America was incredibly quick, photograph by Mike Beaumont. Source: UnsplashThe Mtis were now the uncontested leaders of the eastern Plains, holding a monopoly on bison hunting. Red River carts played a crucial role in battles with other First Nations. They could be easily converted from makeshift homes into perfect defensive tools, into shields behind which Mtis women and children could hide while armed men rode out to face the attackers. The carts were placed in circles to form a sort of defensive wall. Today, Red River carts are featured on both the Mtis flag and the Manitoba Mtis Federation flag, symbolizing the uniqueness of Mtis culture.The Laws of the HuntFur traders delivering fur at the Hudsons Bay Companys station in Lower Fort Farry, Manitoba, 1913. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThroughout the 19th century, the Mtis collaborated with European settlers and traders to provide them with bison-derived goods, from hides for robes to dried meat to be turned into pemmican. The establishment of the Hudsons Bay Company and the North West Company led to a significant increase in European demand for bison hides and meat.In response, the Mtis intensified their bison hunts, sometimes killing up to a thousand animals at a time. They were aware, however, that uncontrolled bison hunting could disrupt the ecosystems fragile balance. They understood that bison herds needed to be protected for the common good and the survival ofall. To achieve this, they strictly adhered to the so-called Laws of the Hunt, a specific code of conduct consisting of eight points that formed the basis of each buffalo hunt among the Mtis.Sioux buffalo rawhide. Source: Brooklyn MuseumThe first law prohibited hunting bison on the Sabbath-day during each hunt. The second law stated that no hunting party could fork off, lag behind, or go before, without permission. Permission to hunt bison had to be granted by the Elders and the hunting partys chief. The third law specified that no person or party could run buffalo before the general order, thus recognizing the significance of bison for the survival of the entire community. The fourth law stated that every captain and his men must patrol the camp, and keep guard.The remaining four points outlined the punishments for anyone caught disobeying or disregarding the Laws of the Hunt. Offenders were not jailed or executed, but publicly shamed. They were flogged if caught breaking the third rule, and their coat was cut up if they broke the second. Anyone caught stealing was forcibly taken to the middle of the camp. There, standing in front of the community, they were forced to hear their name called out along withthe word Thief at least three times. There was no way to avoid being publicly shamed.Bison herds belonged to the community as a whole, and anyone who put their own interests before that of the community was required to pay a price. The largest organized bison hunt took place in 1840, at a time when immense bison herds still roamed the Prairies and the Plains. The last Mtis hunt occurred more than 40 years later, in May 1882, when hundreds of Red River carts traveled from the Red River settlement to Moose Mountain, in Kananaskis Country, Alberta.DisappearingBeaver pelt, 1850s. Source: National Museum of American HistoryAccording to Chicago-born historian Andrew Isenberg, in the early 19th century, approximately 30 million bison could be seen roaming the Great Plains across what are now Canada and the United States. By the 1830s, the demand for bison hides from Euro-American settlers surpassed that of beaver pelts, which were a major part of the early Canadian fur trade economy. In the 1850s, the bison population was already in decline. By the 1880s, the Mtis and other Plains First Nations were competing for control of the nearly extinct bison herds. According to the Smithsonian Institution, by 1900, the entire North American bison population is estimated to have been less than 1000 individuals (a 99.99% decline in the population).The establishment of railways contributed to the destruction of bisons natural habitats, 1906. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe dramatic collapse of the bison population across North America was incredibly quick and steady. It was triggered by a variety of factors, above all the extensive European demand for bison products which led the Mtis to intensify their hunting efforts. This, in turn, heightened the already existing tensions between the Mtis and other First Nations of the Plains. The introduction of rifles in bison hunts, the expansion of railways in the West, and the unstoppable growth of farming settlements and towns further disrupted bison habitats, contributing to their near extinction. Ultimately, the Mtis were as responsible for the depletion of bison herds as other First Nations, European traders, trading companies, and settlers.

T. Sgt. Serman Hughes, T. Sgt. Hudson Murphy, and Pfc. Zacariah Gibbs. Photo courtesy of the U.S. ArmyIn mid-1944, the Western Allied advance stalled due to acute supply problems. Thus, they created the Red Ball Express, a truck convoy system utilizing thousands of stalwart drivers. And 75% of these drivers were African American.How Did the Supply Problem Happen?Directing Traffic Red Ball Express September 1944 Source: Montana Military MuseumThe Allied supply issues resulted from a bittersweet mixture of success and failure. The success came from the massive pre-D-Day Allied bombing effort. This campaigned crippled the French rail system, roads and bridges, or any infrastructure worth hitting. The failure occurred as the Germans thoroughly destroyed any French port installations and designated ports as Festungs (fortresses. These held out until Germanys 1945 surrender, denying any value to the Allies.So, with all this disarray, ammunition, fuel, supplies, and reinforcements came in via the Normandy beaches and later Cherbourg. The August 12, 1944 Allied victory at the Falaise Pocket outstripped their ability to resupply the fast-moving armies, especially in gas. And on August 16, the Red Ball Express was born.Where Did African American Drivers Join the Red Ball Express?Warning Poster French Citizens-Red Ball Express Source: First Division MuseumWith this crisis now facing the Allies, the how became a priority. So, the Army turned to its Quartermaster and Transportation Corp. The Army grabbed every unit, truck, or hauling vehicle to get started. Composed primarily of African American personnel, these drivers joined from supply depots in Normandy, working in locations like Cherbourg and other spots the Allies liberated.How Were African American Drivers the Backbone?The Red Ball Express. Source: Warfare History NetworkWhile white drivers drove for the Red Ball Express, by simple numbers, African Americans became its spine. Due to racist Army policies, most black soldiers got shunted into service or non-combat roles. These men would make up 75% of all the drivers and get the job done. The Army brought in 23,000 drivers to move supplies using 6,000 trucks. Of these drivers, just over 17,000 were African American.An average division gobbled some 700+ tons of fuel, gas, and ammunition daily. With over two dozen divisions fighting, total demand reached thousands of tons. Operating around the clock, the drivers delivered around 12,000 tons daily.These supply runs defied even stout-hearted drivers. Two drivers shared duties as round trips sometimes took up to 54 hours or 750 miles. A typical route may start in Cherbourg Harbor, the Normandy beaches, and zigzag to the German border. The U.S. Army marked routes with a red dot or ball, earning the Expresss nickname. The Red Ball Express ended on November 16, 1944, during which the mostly African American drivers delivered over 410,00 tons of supplies.What Challenges Did These Drivers Face?Damaged Truck on Red Ball Express Source: U.S. Transportation CorpUnfortunately, the Black drivers faced their first and most serious challenge because of their skin color (discussed later). The challenges arose from being in newly liberated locations, being the enemy, and even from fellow Americans.Their routes took the drivers close to enemy lines, so driving at night required cat-eyes headlights. These dimmed the emitted light. The trucks carried .50 caliber machine guns with at least one Luftwaffe fighter shot down. Another major problem emerged from simple fatigue. The drivers often drove thirty-plus hours nonstop over bad roads. Accidents increased dramatically as a result.Drivers carried weapons for defense against the Germans. Occasionally, the drivers turned around or halted due to ambushes. Other ambushes came from French civilians looking to sell goods on Frances thriving black market. The hijackers looked for stragglers or broken-down trucks. The drivers also coped with maintenance and breakdowns. Due to strict timelines, trucks that departed were overloaded. When combined with constant driving and rough roads, mechanical failures increased. With no established maintenance facilities or spare parts, trucks broke down. The drivers often fixed problems on the go.What Discrimination Did the African American Drivers Face?Red Ball Express drivers. Source: Warfare History NetworkFrom the get-go, the Black drivers faced discrimination. Some trained as combat soldiers but ended up in transport companies. They face stereotypes of being lazy, unmotivated, or lacking in skills. This racism was systemic, resulting from decades-old policies. Examples of racism included segregated living conditions, being given old or broken-down equipment to complete the same job, and even local hostility. Few African Americans received promotions, facing exclusion from advanced opportunities. If a truck got hijacked, the Black drivers got blamed first.Yet the drivers adopted the motto toute de suite immediately. From August 25 to November 16, 1944, the Red Ball Express couldnt have operated without African American drivers.Their relentless driving despite grueling conditions kept the American armies supplied. Besides drivers, African American soldiers also fixed the trucks, directed traffic, and more. Germanys defeat wouldve taken much longer without these soldiers efforts.

How Many Babies Did Dinosaurs Have? And Other Questionable Prehistoric Parenting PracticesHow Many Babies Did Dinosaurs Have? And Other Questionable Prehistoric Parenting PracticesLots of eggs. Lots of babies. Lots of death.“Baby animals are not the most stable of things."Image credit: Giedriius / Shutterstock.com“Come on little one,” John Hammond croons to a baby Velociraptor in Jurassic Park....

Wearing A Tie Might Have A Concerning ConsequenceWearing A Tie Might Have A Concerning ConsequenceWhat science says about this common accessory.Rosie McCallFreelance Writeremail33SharesSmart on the outside, but at what cost?Image Credit: meeboonstudio/Shutterstock.comWhether on the playground, in the boardroom, or at formal events, the suit and tie have long symbolized professionalism and...

There's A Very Good Reason Why You Will Never See A Great White Shark In An AquariumWhy Don’t You Ever See Great White Sharks In Aquariums?It might not be why you think.8SharesGreat whites and aquariums do not end well.Image Credit: screamingtrees_22/Shutterstock.comEver wondered why you never see great white sharks in aquariums? It can't be their size alone, we keep orcas in captivity. So what...

It's always nice when a game allows you to play your way. If a game gives you the autonomy to make decisions and shape your adventure, it's hard to be mad at the developers. After all, plenty of other games would happily hold your hand and treat you like an idiot.

How do Marvel Rivals ranks work? It's seldom enough to hop into a shooter for a casual experience, and eventually, the urge to dive into more competitive waters becomes too much. Like many other games, Marvel Rivals offers rewards specific to its ranked mode, tempting players to test their mettle.So, if you've been hard at work improving your gameplay on your favorite Marvel Rivals characters on the Marvel Rivals tier list, now's the time to hop into the multiplayer game's biggest challenge. Below we'll take you through all the Marvel Rivals ranks, how the competitive mode works, and the free Marvel Rivals skins you can earn through climbing the ladder. Continue reading Marvel Rivals ranks, distribution, and competitive explainedMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Marvel Rivals codes, Marvel Rivals characters, Marvel Rivals tier list

AMD might have garnered a load of positive press for its latest graphics cards, but PC gamers are roundly rejecting them, according to the data in the latest Steam Hardware Survey. In fact, not a single AMD Radeon RX 9070 GPU appears on the latest survey, nearly three months after their early March release, while even the new Nvidia GeForce RTX 5060 Ti has already made its first appearance.It undoubtedly doesnt help that the prices of the latest AMD GPUs bear little relation to the MSRPs originally quoted by the company when they were released. With its $599 MSRP, our AMD Radeon RX 9070 XT review was wholly positive for the huge performance on offer, making it the best GPU in its price sector. However, the actual price in the real world is considerably higher, with prices actually starting at $859.99 in the US, for example. Continue reading PC gamers are rejecting the latest AMD Radeon GPUs, buying Nvidia cards insteadMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Ryzen 7 9800X3D review, Best gaming CPU, Radeon RX 9070 XT review

Forever Skies is one of the most promising survival games on Steam right now. It blends Fallout and Subnautica into an entirely new experience, where you and a few friends must thrive on an ecologically ruined Earth. To do so, you need to pilot and look after a high-tech airship while delving into the ruins below. After finally launching out of early access back in April, however, plenty of players have been left disappointed. Technical issues, tedious gameplay, and repetitive environments have all hindered the experience for many, but developer Far From Home has a plan. The team isnt done with Forever Skies, and outlines how it will right the ship with upcoming updates. Continue reading Subnautica rival Forever Skies has huge redemption plans after a rocky launchMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best co-op games, Best open-world games, Best survival games

Apple is expected to unveil the Apple Watch Series 11 in September. This next generation of Apple Watch models should feel like a refresh, especially with the rumored watchOS 26 revamp expected to be announced next week.While Apple Watch Series 10 tweaked the design with a bigger display and a new titanium option, there's likely much more in store for Apples smartwatches in the second half of the year.Here are five possible new features coming to Apple Watch Series 11:5G support: One of the most anticipated upgrades for the Apple Watch Series 11 is 5G support. According to Bloombergs Mark Gurman, Apple plans to move from Intel 4G chips to new MediaTek 5G modems. This could finally bring faster data speeds to the watch when using Maps, streaming music, or making FaceTime audio calls. The company is expected to adopt 5G RedCap, a lower-tier 5G service tailored for IoT and wearables that don't need high-speed connections.Even though Apple Watch users wont get the blazing speeds seen on the latest iPhones, the 5G RedCap modem can deliver download speeds up to 220Mbps and upload speeds up to 120Mbps, making everyday tasks feel quicker.Blood pressure support: Gurman also reports that Apple is preparing blood pressure support for the Apple Watch Series 11. At first, the watch will indicate whether your blood pressure is in a normal range or if you're experiencing hypertension. This will work similarly to the sleep apnea detection feature. Apple plans to refine this functionality over time.Improved battery life: Apple always promises all-day battery life for the Apple Watch. As new features are added, Apple consistently works to improve battery efficiency to maintain this standard. Expect the same approach this year.Better processor: Apple is likely developing a new S11 SoC for the Apple Watch Series 11. With speculation that Apple Intelligence features may come to the watch, the new chip could be optimized for handling AI functions and the 5G modem.watchOS 26 support: watchOS 26 will obviously bring most of the marquee features that will make the Apple Watch Series 11 a huge upgrade. This model is being designed with the upcoming OS in mind. With Apple reportedly overhauling the design of all its operating systems, the Series 11 should benefit from new UI elements and improvements.One more feature could make its way to Apple Watch Series 11Apple Watch Ultra 2 colors. Image source: Jos Adorno for BGRWere still waiting on more rumors to suggest other upgrades, such as a better ultra-wideband chip, a brighter display, or improved sensors. But one last potential feature could make it to the Apple Watch Series 11.Satellite support: According to Bloomberg, the iPhones satellite capabilities are headed to the Apple Watch. This would be especially useful for hikers and trail explorers.Satellite support is currently expected to debut with the Apple Watch Ultra 3, and it might initially be exclusive to that model. Still, since Apple recently added diving features to the Apple Watch Series 10, this feature could eventually make it to more models if it's not included in the Series 11.Lastly, while Series 10 marked the tenth anniversary of the Apple Watch, it's technically Series 11 that should mark the occasion, since the watch was announced in 2014 but didnt go on sale until 2015.Don't Miss: Apples iOS 26 rebrand suggests its dodging the AI race, not leading itThe post Apple Watch Series 11 could be a massive update with these 5 rumored upgrades appeared first on BGR.Today's Top DealsTodays deals: $15 Amazon credit, rare PS5 Pro sale, $263 HP Stream laptop, $298 Sony XM5 headphones, moreTodays deals: Heybike ALPHA, $299 Apple Watch Series 10, $90 23-piece cookware set, moreTodays deals: $399 iPad mini, $188 Vizio surround sound, $32 Thermacell mosquito repeller, moreBest deals: Tech, laptops, TVs, and more sales