In 1398, the armies of Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Empire and self-proclaimed successor of Genghis Khan, swept through the Sultanate of Delhi in modern northern India. The brutal invasion ended with the fantastically destructive siege of Delhi, which left the great city devastated for almost a century and profoundly impacted the history of India.BackgroundA bust of a facial reconstruction of the legendary Timur, anglicized to Tamerlane from his Persian nickname Temur Lang or Timur the lame. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBorn sometime in the 1320s, Timur (known as Tamerlane from the Persian for Timur the Lame due to an affliction from an old leg wound) is one of the most legendary conquerors in history. From humble beginnings in modern-day Uzbekistan, he built an empire on the model of the great Genghis Khan. For 30 years, he expanded his new Timurid Empire throughout Central Asia into Persia and led expeditions into the Caucasus and modern-day Russia. Then, in 1398, he had turned his attention south to the Delhi Sultanate of northern India.India was fabulously wealthy, and the city of Delhi was arguably the pinnacle of this wealth. However, few of the great conquerors of yesteryear, from Alexander the Great to Genghis Khan, had made much headway into the subcontinent. The Islamic Ghurid Dynasty had taken Delhi in 1175, but their rule was short-lived. In their place, dynasties of fluctuating power and control constantly rose and fell.By 1398, the current Tughlaq Dynasty was, Tamerlanes intelligence informed him, a shadow of its former self. Decades of civil conflict and fratricide had reduced their empire significantly. Even within their borders, the provincial rulers paid only lip service to the Shah, Mahmud II. What governmental authority was left belonged to his Vizier, Mallu Iqbal Khan, who ruled in Delhi, and Mallus brother, Sarang, who ruled in Multan.City of Delhi in the Catalan Atlas, 1375. Source: Wikimedia CommonsReligion provided another Casus Belli. Though the Tughlaq Dynasty was Muslim, many of their subjects were Hindu and enjoyed a relatively high degree of religious autonomy thanks to the Tughlaqs tenuous control over their Sultanate. Consequently, Tamerlane, a Muslim himself, proclaimed the Tughlaqs not true defenders of the faith and that his invasion would be a form of Jihad. This religious angle was likely just a convenient excuse for Tamerlane; nevertheless, it boosted his religious prestige and the wars legitimacy.Tamerlane was eager to exploit this instability and thus achieve an accolade not even the greatest of conquerors had enjoyed. Not to mention the religious standing and fabulous plunder, conquering the Delhi Sultanate would bring him. Yet even facing a weakened Sultanate and with religious fervor behind him, Tamerlane knew that conquering Delhi would require no small effort on his part.Entering the SubcontinentA map of the many tributaries of the Indus River and the mountains of the Hindu Kush that stood between Tamerlane, who began his invasion from Kabul, and the city of Delhi. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen it came to warfare, Tamerlane possessed the power and ability of the Turco-Mongolic nomadic warriors, with the logistical and administrative prowess of the Central Asian and Persian imperial states. His administration had gone into overdrive, raising a massive army of 90,000 men from all corners of his empire to his capital of Samarkand in March 1398. India, it was said, possessed four great defenses that Tamerlane would need to overcome. First were her forbidding mountains, second, the great rivers and jungles. After these natural barriers came the third defense of Indias many fierce warrior cultures and armies, and then finally the monstrous battalions of war elephants.The first two defenses posed the most immediate problem. Directly between him and Delhi lay the mighty mountains of the Hindu Kush, not to mention the mighty Indus River and its five great tributaries of the Punjab region. Tamerlane, though, would never let something as minor as near-impassible natural boundaries stop his quest for glory. The mountains of the Hindu Kush and their Kator and Siyah-Posha inhabitants, known collectively as the Kafir, were Tamerlanes first challenge.The Hindu Kush, photo by Shahzad Ali. Source: UnsplashThe Kafir had long resisted outside influence while happily plundering the caravans and supplies of armies that crossed below their mountain. Alexander the Great had resorted to bribing them to ensure safe passage into India, but Timur would make no such concessions. Instead, while most of his army marched to Kabul, the nearly 70-year-old Tamerlane led a crack detachment of troops over seemingly impenetrable mountain passes right into the Kafir heartlands.The Kafir resisted fiercely but were soon scattered, enslaved or put to the sword. With the threat to his supply lines now removed, Tamerlane joined his army in Kabul. In late summer 1398, after convalescing from his mountain jaunt, he marched his army through the Khyber Pass and into India. Before him lay the great jungles and powerful river ways of the Punjab, but Tamerlane had brought with him a highly effective corps of engineers. Thanks to their work, he could have bridges built and subsequently dismantled in as little as two days, making short work of the rivers in his way.Plundering the PunjabThe shrine of Tughlaq Shah and Sufi saint Shah Rukn-e-Alam in the city of Multan, the citys many shrines and centers of Islamic worship, giving the city its nickname of The City of Saints, did not save it from Timurid forces. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne may well wonder if Shah Mahmud II, Mallu, or Sarang knew or were prepared for Tamerlanes coming. Tamerlane had not been shy about his intentions; diplomats had been sent to Sarang directly, advising him to Pay me a yearly tribute, and if not, [Sarang] shall hear of my arrival with my powerful armies. Sarang had defiantly responded that if The desire of [Tamerlane] is to take this kingdom with its rich revenue. Well, let him wrest it from us by force of arms if he be able.A brave response indeed, and letting Sarang know he was coming might seem a mistake from Tamerlane. However, Tamerlane knew of the dire disunity within the Sultanate and had already confirmed there would be no army to meet his arrival before he had even left Samarkand. Earlier in the year, his grandson, Pir Mohammed, led an advance guard into India to besiege Sarang and Multan.No army responded to Pir Mohammeds arrival, and while Multan stubbornly held out for six months, no attempt was made to lift the siege. The Shah was too busy dealing with pretenders to his throne to project his authority that far outside of Delhi. Meanwhile, Mallu was unable to organize a strong enough force to lift the siege. The city finally fell just as Tamerlane himself arrived on the scene.Equestrian statue of Tamerlane from Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy the end of September, the rest of the Timurid army had entered the Sultanate and linked up with Pir Mohammed unopposed. Multan was brutally sacked, and Tamerlane began an inexorable march to Delhi. As he crossed the Indus and its five tributaries, he exercised a ruthless policy of carrot and stick. Cities and nobles that surrendered were treated kindly, in exchange for surrendering their treasure, but any that resisted, such as Tumbala and Dalpipur, suffered the same fate as Multan. Temples and mosques alike were plundered (a curious action for an army allegedly on Jihad), and many captives were taken.Many of the Islamic nobility and administrators surrendered to Tamerlane or defected outright rather than die in defense of the absentee Mahmud II. There was some opposition from the Hindu Rajput and Jat confederations, who stubbornly defended their homeland against overwhelming force. For their pain, they were slaughtered or enslaved.Arrival at DelhiThe remains of the Tughlaqabad fort, just outside Delhi. Shah Ghiyasuddin, founder of the Tughlaq dynasty, built it to defend against a potential Mongol invasion, but it was abandoned in 1327. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTons of treasure and, allegedly, over 100,000 captives were swept up by Tamerlanes unwavering advance through the Punjab region. Then, in mid-December, barely three months after entering India, Tamerlanes army arrived outside Delhi.Two of Indias defenses, the mountains and rivers, had failed to stop Tamerlane. Yet, taking the great city itself would not be an easy feat. Mahmud and Mallu prepared to defend Delhi with Indias third and fourth great defenses, the soldiers and elephants. As Tamerlane neared the city, the defenders sent out harrying forces to harass his troops. However, Tamerlane responded to these attacks with a calculated atrocity.After hearing that some of the captives from other cities had witnessed one of the skirmishes and cheered on Delhis defenders, he ordered all 100,000 captives to be executed in cold blood. Tamerlanes concern that the captives were preparing a revolt seems convenient, as does his religious justification that, as most of the prisoners were Hindus, their destruction was divinely sanctioned.Old Delhi today, photo by Sergio Capuzzimati. Source: UnsplashWhy take them prisoner in the first place, if their killing was a religious order, and why risk an uprising by keeping them with the army rather than having them taken back to his empire? It may be that this theatrical act of cruelty was done to bait Mahmud and Mallu into committing to an open battle, but this intention can never be proven. Regardless, on December 17, the defenders of Delhi sallied out to attack Tamerlanes army.Hindsight suggests Mahmud and Mallu should have stayed behind Delhis walls. A battle suited Tamerlane far more than a city assault or protracted siege, which would have taxed his supply lines while the unfamiliar Indian climate sapped the strength of his army. However, Mahmud was determined to seek a swift and crushing victory after Tamerlanes display of brutality and the destruction he had wrought on his march East. Additionally, Mahmud may have thought that a swift and decisive resolution would greatly benefit his royal authority, as opposed to being holed up in his capital by Tamerlane.War Elephants and Battle PlansSketch of a historical war elephant, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe battle certainly would be decisive and would impact Mahmuds royal authority, but fighting an open battle rather than a siege gave Mahmud another crucial advantage over Tamerlane. It meant he could deploy his secret weapon and Indias fourth great defense. It was time for Tamerlane to address the elephant in the room, or, more accurately, the battlefield.The core of the Shahs army was his company of over 120 war elephants; indeed, the great beasts had fought in almost every war in the subcontinent. Often covered in armor, they would charge into enemies and wreak havoc while men on their backs hurled missiles down on their enemies. Tamerlanes army had not yet fought any elephants, but their reputation preceded them. Stories spread through his camp about how they could kill both a horse and rider by crushing them, and other rumors that greatly disquieted even his most experienced veterans. Tamerlane, however, had anticipated this anxiety and had prepared his strategy carefully.Tamerlane instructed his archers to aim at the men on the elephants backs and for his men to open gaps in their lines for the elephants to run through harmlessly. Crucially, however, by ensuring the defenders of Delhi sallied out to meet him, Tamerlane was able to choose the battlefield he wanted and prepare it in advance.He had palisades and earthworks constructed in key positions around his lines and had his men scatter caltrops across the field. Tamerlane even had the pack animals of his baggage trains chained up in front of his center as a sort of living wall to disrupt any direct elephant attack. These actions strengthened the resolve of his men, but their effectiveness against the elephants remained to be seen.Battle of DelhiAn image showing Tamerlane chasing Shah Mahmud II and his troops back to the walls of Delhi from the famous biography of Tamerlane, the Zafarnama of Ibrahim Sultan, 1436. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe battle outside Delhi was, even by Tamerlanes standards, particularly brutal and bloody. It began when the Sultanates left wing tried to outflank the Timurids but were ambushed and routed by a mobile reserve positioned to see off just such an attack. In response, Shah Mahmud ordered the rest of his army to attack Tamerlanes center, led, of course, by the mighty elephants.Tamerlanes response has gone down as one of the most brilliant examples of strategic ingenuity in history. As all 120 armored elephants charged the Timurid center, their rampage was blunted by the caltrops and defenses prepared before the battle, just as Tamerlane planned.Then, the story goes, Tamerlane ordered the line of baggage camels to be set on fire and driven at the elephants, spooking the notoriously skittish pachyderms into trampling their own army. However, this particular episode seems to come from sources written many years after the battle. More contemporary sources do mention the baggage animals (usually recorded as buffaloes) playing a part in the anti-elephant strategy. Yet while both armies used incendiary weapons, making an accidental baggage animal fire possible, there is no way to say for certain if Tamerlane deliberately orchestrated such an event.A depiction of the Timurid cavalry, from the Zafarnama, 1436. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFlaming camels (or lack thereof) aside, Tamerlanes prepared defenses worked their magic perfectly, throwing the elephants, and consequently the troops following behind them, into chaos. The few elephants that reached the Timurid lines were neutralized by his archers exactly as Tamerlane had instructed. Shah Mahmud and Mallu, seeing the elephants fall and their flanks routed, fled back behind the citys walls.Even without their leaders, Delhis remaining defenders fought a desperate last stand, but the situation was hopeless. A Timurid chronicler recorded that The soldiers of India fought bravely for their lives, but the frail insect cannot contend with the raging wind. The only thing left now was the surrender of the city itself.The Shah and his vizier, seeing the hopelessness of their situation, quietly escaped the city shortly after the battle had ended. The remaining civilian administration hastily bowed to the inevitable and agreed to surrender the city to the all-conquering Tamerlane. After the brutal violence of the battle, the surrender of Delhi was initially a somewhat peaceful affair.Tamerlane and his army camped outside the city, while his officials oversaw the citys subjugation. Treasures were carried out, ransoms and hostages agreed upon, and other matters agreed to. At one point, Tamerlanes queen and the women of the royal court took a tour of the city while Tamerlane had the surviving elephants paraded for him and his generals. Despite their failure in battle, Tamerlane was so awed by the great beasts that he gave them as gifts to allies and friends. Then, all of a sudden, the situation took a horrific turn.Sack of the CityAnother image from the Zafarnama showing Tamerlane celebrating the fall of Delhi while camped outside the city, 1436. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor several days after the battle, despite attempts to control the numbers of Timurid troops inside Delhi, more and more of them entered the city. At some point, a fracas broke out between the inhabitants and the soldiers; sources vary on the cause, and soon the whole city was in turmoil. Some sources claim that the citizens rose up against the occupiers, while others claim the citizens looked to burn their own homes and possessions rather than surrender them. Meanwhile, thousands more soldiers entered the city to aid their comrades and take what plunder they could.Most sources claim Tamerlane, still encamped outside the city, was not told about the unfolding disaster until the city was already burning. However, a notoriously strict disciplinarian like Tamerlane would not have let himself be kept in the dark on such a matter. Nor would his army have dared to undertake unsanctioned plundering unless they felt confident they had some form of consent from their lord. Whatever the case, by December 25, Delhi was ablaze and its surviving inhabitants enslaved. All of the citys great artisans, scholars, and craftsmen were taken by Tamerlane personally. However, so great was the citys population that reportedly even the lowliest Timurid soldier came away from Delhi with at least 20 slaves.Tamerlane had achieved a conquest that not even the mightiest of his heroes had enjoyed, and so he decided to head home. As 1399 began, Tamerlane made a brief stop at Firozabad and crossed the Ganges to plunder a few more towns before taking a more northerly route back towards Afghanistan, plundering as he went. Just like that, as swiftly as he had come, Tamerlane left India. In his wake he left hundreds of thousands dead, a shattered Sultanate, and one of the great cities of the world in smoking ruin.AftermathBabur, descendant of Tamerlane and founder of the Mughal Empire, 1589. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTamerlane famously had a light touch regarding the imposition of new governmental organizations on territories he attacked, and so it went for India. On his departure, he appointed one of the Tughlaq nobles who had defected to him, Khizr Khan, as a vassal governor of Multan and the surrounding province. This, however, appears to be the extent of Tamerlanes imposition and territorial expansion. He had won his glory and plundered the legendary wealth of Delhi; the job, as far as he was concerned, was done. So, Tamerlane and his army took their spoils back through the Khyber Pass to Samarkand, happy to leave the rest of the shattered Sultanate to its own devices. Yet his foray into the subcontinent still left a profound impact.Politically, the already waning power of the Tughlaq Dynasty was completely shattered. As the dust settled, many of the already largely independent provincial states began breaking away completely. Astonishingly, Shah Mahmud II continued to rule over a minuscule rump state until his death in 1415, when Khizr Khan usurped his holdings and founded the Sayyid Dynasty. The human cost was even more devastating. The destruction of food stores by the Timurids saw famine sweep across the remains of the Sultanate, adding to the already astronomical death toll.Timurid Soldier in armor, 1397-1410. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile many great and famous cities were picked clean of their treasures, the worst affected by far was Delhi. The Sultanates majestic capital was left in ashes, and its fabulous treasury was carried off along with its citizens. It would be another two months before the survivors who had escaped Delhi before the sack returned to their devastated home, but the city itself wouldnt fully recover for at least another century. Yet this was not the last time the Indian subcontinent would be subject to Timurid attention.In the early 16th century CE, Timurs great-great-great-grandson had looked to build his own kingdom by following in his ancestors footsteps. Setting out from Kabul, he marched into the Punjab and at the first battle of Pannipat seized control of Delhi and the remains of her Sultanate. There, Zahir ud-Din Muhammad, remembered today as Babur, declared himself Badshah (emperor) of the Mughal Empire, one of the greatest and most spectacular empires the world has ever known.

The evolution of armed conflicts has increased casualty lists while also making ordinary people less willing to take up arms. This especially proved the case during the Cold War, where the overriding aim of most countries was to prevent World War III. In several instances, 11th-hour diplomatic interventions averted major conflicts and saved countless lives.1. Berlin Crisis of 1961American and Soviet tanks face each other at Checkpoint Charlie, 1961. Source: War on the RocksDuring the Cold War, one of the Soviet Unions main objectives was to unify Berlin under Communist control. Both Soviet and East German officials resented that many people in East Berlin wanted to flee to the Western side. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev issued an ultimatum to the West: withdraw military forces from Berlin and make it a demilitarized city. After a period of time, Berlin would be reunited and West Germany would only be allowed access to the city if the East German government consented.This ultimatum angered Western governments and it was rejected. After John F. Kennedy became president in 1961, Khrushchev agreed to meet with him for discussions on a range of matters, including Berlin. During their meeting in Vienna, both leaders agreed to back down to avoid a clash. However, the East German government still aimed to stop the flow of people going to West Berlin. GDR President Walter Ulbricht convinced the Soviets to build a wall and cut off Western access to Berlin entirely. In June 1961, Khrushchev threatened to withdraw from the four-power treaty governing control of Berlin.The Kennedy administration did not want to seem weak in the eyes of the Communists and ordered a call-up of reservists. They prepared to redeploy military units to protect West Berlin. Mercifully, the Communists backed down when they saw the American response and lifted their blockade. While the wall still went up, the threat of conflict over Berlin passed for the time being.2. Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962An American SP-2H Neptune flying over a Soviet cargo ship bound for Cuba (1962). Source: The BulletinRight after the Berlin crisis passed, a new threat of war between the US and the USSR flared up. After Cubas successful communist revolution in 1959, the new government in Havana initially considered staying out of the Cold War entirely.However, after the Americans failed to overthrow Castro in the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961, Castro sought closer cooperation with the Soviet government. Khrushchev saw a chance to humiliate the United States and he ordered Soviet forces to begin stationing equipment in Cuba. He then ordered the shipment of missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads to the island.American intelligence picked up signals of a Soviet buildup and U-2 spy planes began flying over Cuba to see what the Communists were up to. By late August in 1962, the administration had proof that the Soviets were building emplacements for SS-4 and SS-5 nuclear missiles. These weapons could strike deep into the United States, including Washington DC.Kennedy reacted by forming ExComm, or the Executive Committee, to bring together a group of political and military officials to give advice on how to respond. These included a direct attack, a blockade, or negotiations. Kennedy decided on a hybrid approach, ordering the US Navy to blockade Cuba while seeking to talk to Khrushchev.President Kennedy during a meeting with ExComm, 1962. Source: JFK LibraryOn October 22, Kennedy wrote to Khrushchev saying he would not allow offensive weapons to be based in Cuba. This kicked off a round of direct diplomacy between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Over the next several days, multiple Soviet ships were stopped by American naval vessels.The chance of conflict was very high, until ABC reporter John Scali revealed that the Soviets were offering to remove the missiles if America backed away from an invasion of Cuba. Khrushchev sent Kennedy a note urging him to back down. He subsequently asked that America remove its Jupiter missiles from Turkey.Kennedy seemed interested as the Jupiter missiles were going to be removed anyway, but the shootdown of an American U-2 threatened to derail negotiations. However, an agreement was reached following a private meeting between Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. The Soviets would remove their missiles and bombers and the Americans would pull their missiles out of Turkey at a later date. By October 28, the crisis was averted. It remains the closest the world has come to a nuclear war.3. Sino-Soviet Border Crisis in 1969Soviet and Chinese troops confront each other on Damansky Island, 1969. Source: Russia Beyond the HeadlinesThe Communist world had long been riven with internal divisions during the Cold War. Chinese officials, including Chairman Mao Zedong, were outraged by Nikita Khrushchevs denunciation of Stalins crimes and excesses. As a result, the Soviets and Chinese began to publicly feud over a variety of issues, such as how to assist North Vietnam. When the Soviets claimed that other Warsaw Pact member states only had limited sovereignty, the Chinese saw a chance to become the leader of the Communist world.Mao began ordering Chinese forces to the disputed border region in eastern Siberia. He hoped to increase his legitimacy at home and abroad by stoking a conflict with the Soviets. On March 2, 1969, Chinese troops ambushed a Soviet patrol on the disputed Bolshoi Damansky Island (Zhenbao Island in Chinese).Over the next several weeks, both armies fired light weapons and artillery at each other, inflicting hundreds of casualties. The situation threatened to get out of control because Chinese officials felt emboldened to keep attacking and feared a Soviet attack in Xinjiang. Moscow considered using nuclear weapons on Beijing if the fighting got worse.The death of North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh offered a chance to defuse tensions. When Hos funeral was held in Hanoi in September 1969, Soviet Premier Alexey Kosygin met with Zhou Enlai, the Chinese premier, to come to an agreement. Both nations agreed to back down, but the border dispute was not resolved until after the Soviet Union collapsed. The United States leveraged the Sino-Soviet split to seek formal diplomatic reopening with China in 1972.4. Able Archer Exercises in 1983An American tank during Able Archer 83, 1983. Source: Livescience.comThroughout the Cold War, both NATO and Warsaw Pact forces staged exercises to prepare for the possibility of a full-scale war. In 1983, NATO held an exercise called Able Archer in West Germany designed to prepare for the worst-case scenario. In this exercise, a coup led to a Soviet invasion of several European countries. The exercise ended with Western policymakers deploying nuclear weapons to stop the Soviet advance. It was one of six separate exercises in Autumn Forge, a NATO drill designed to prepare for several different threats.As NATO commanders went through the motions of the exercise, the Soviets observed from a distance. However, they struggled to identify whether or not NATO was conducting a simulation or actually preparing for a conflict. In 1981, Soviet General Secretary Yuri Andropov ordered the KGB to assess whether or not America would attack the USSR with nukes. The Americans believed that the Soviets would discount military exercises and chose to continue them. Tensions continued to rise with Ronald Reagans military buildup in Europe and the shootdown of Korean Airlines Flight 007.During Able Archer, Soviet observers claimed that the Americans were preparing to deploy medium-range nuclear-armed ballistic missiles in West Germany. They also believed that America was raising its threat level to DefCon 1. The Soviets began putting their nuclear forces on alert. However, Lieutenant General Leonard Perroots, a senior US Army officer in Europe, urged NATO to end the exercise to defuse tensions. The Soviets subsequently backed down, leading to the opening of talks between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev.5. Pristina Incident in 1999British Army General Mike Jackson meets with Russian General Viktor Zavardin during the Kosovo War, 1999. Source: Balkan InsightThe end of the Cold War did not completely end the tensions between the United States and Russia. When Yugoslavia began to collapse, Russia vowed to defend the Serbian state as it battled separatist movements in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. On June 11, 1999, the war in Kosovo ended after a sustained air campaign by NATO forces against the Serbian regime.Part of the Kumanovo Accords that ended the conflict involved the creation of peacekeeping zones, predominantly by NATO forces, in different areas of Kosovo. The Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, NATOs expeditionary force, began deploying units to the country under the command of British General Mike Jackson.At the same time, Russian Colonel General Yuri Baluyevsky ordered the secret deployment of Russian forces to Kosovo. Moscow already had forces stationed in Bosnia to monitor the Dayton Accords. Some of these forces were ordered to Pristina International Airport before the arrival of NATO forces. By June 12, NATO special forces units arrived at the airport to find Russian paratroopers already there. Both sides reinforced their troops and General Jackson went to the airport to meet with Russian General Viktor Zavarzin.When NATO learned that Russia planned to fly in reinforcements to the airport, Supreme Allied Commander General Wesley Clark ordered Jackson to block the runway with armored vehicles. However, Jackson refused, fearing a shootout with Russian units. The crisis was resolved when neighboring countries refused Russia access to their airspace, leading to Moscow backing down. Peacekeeping proceeded smoothly and Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, though this has not been recognised by Serbia or Russia.6. India-Pakistan Crisis in 2019Indian soldiers stand next to the wreckage of an Indian attack helicopter, 2019. Source: ABC NewsFollowing repeated wars over the disputed Kashmir region after the 1947 partition, both India and Pakistan built up massive military arsenals including nuclear weapons. The Line of Control (LOC) came into existence in 1972 as a dividing line between Indian and Pakistani controlled areas of Kashmir. Despite both countries gaining nuclear capabilities, neither country has backed down from their demands regarding Kashmir and several skirmishes continue to this day. In 2019, a series of clashes threatened to escalate to a major war after a terror attack against Indian policemen by Pakistani-backed militants.Indias Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, was elected on a promise to gain total Indian control over Kashmir and crack down on Pakistani-backed terror networks. After the attack on the policemen in Kashmir, Indian Air Force jets struck a series of compounds in Balakot, Pakistan, where Kashmiri militants were based. Subsequently, both armies began firing small arms and artillery at each other over the LOC, causing military and civilian casualties. Pakistani planes raided Indian airspace and the fighting escalated quickly.Indian Air Force Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman was shot down by a Pakistani air defense system, leading to his capture. At this point, both sides decided to lower tensions. India stopped its air and artillery strikes while Pakistan returned Varthaman to India. Thanks to an agreement between Modi and Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan, a ceasefire was put in place and Pakistan arrested several militants at Indias request. Both countries managed to avoid the worst case scenario, though tensions remained high and another significant skirmish took place in May 2025.

Innovation is a process that works out differently by location. With that, different regions found solutions to problems particular to them. This meant that ship types evolved independently, primarily for trading, exploration, and conquest. Eventually, their uniqueness faded as their innovative designs spread far and wide, or newer designs became more prominent.The Longship: The Feared Viking Raider A Viking Longship. Source: WikimediaA Viking Longship. Source: WikimediaIn the early years of the medieval era, no sight caused more shock than Viking longships. Sighting one meant danger. For the Scandinavian Viking raiders, the longship became their chosen ride.First, the clinker-built hull, with its overlapping wooden planks, allowed for flexibility in rough seas.The longships oars and a single square sail provided speed and stealth. With a long, symmetrical bow and stern meant swift retreats without turning. And depending on its size, a longship could hold 100+ men, especially if out raiding.The durable longship voyaged from the British Isles to Byzantium, raiding and trading. Few places were considered out of reach if near a water body.The Knarr: When Vikings Went CommercialGerman Cog 12th-15th centuries. Source: Deutsches Historisches MuseumThe longship served the Vikings well as a raider and explorer. Yet by the 9th century, something bigger became necessary. Thus emerged the clinker-hulled knarr, shorter and broader. Relying on a single squared sail and four oars, the knarrs deeper hull meant more cargo, up to thirty tons.With a typical crew of twelve or fewer, knarrs carried livestock, timber, and supplies on open ocean voyages. This became the carryall for the rapid Norse expansion.The Cog: The Hanseatic StandardMedieval Hulk from Gdansk. Source: Central Maritime Museum of GdaskShipbuilders next developed the cog as the go-to design in medieval European waters. Clinker-built like the Norse boats, the cog had a single square sail. A typical cog ranged in size from eighty to seven meters in width and displaced several hundred tons. A few rare examples weighed up to 1,000 tons.The cog appeared in the 9th century and dominated Northern European trade, primarily with the powerful Hanseatic League. More advanced than the knarr, the cog introduced new features, such as a flush deck and high freeboard. These offered the crew and cargo better protection. A flat hull enabled better trading in harbors, cargo hauling, and even settling on the harbor bottoms for easier access. Cog builders built their boats with fore and aft castles for defense.The cogs heyday lasted from the 12th to the late 14th centuries. Better, more efficient designs began to emerge.The Hulk: The Mysterious CousinEnglish hulk ship. Source: Barb Drummond Curious HistorianThe mysterious hulk appeared in mystery around the 10th century. Yet despite centuries of use, little is known about the cogs main rival. Developed in the Low Countries, the hulk began as a towed barge in coastal waters or rivers. In appearance, hulks had pronounced stern and forecastles. Its reverse clinker build allowed for quicker construction and larger loads compared to clinker-hulled vessels.Propelled by a single sail, the hulks flat bottom and rounded hull emphasized capacity over speed. The hulk was like a freight train: reliable and big. Despite its utility, the hulk never supplanted the cog. Sadly, no complete example of a hulk exists; only records and a possible wreck remain. By the 14th century, newer designs came along as replacements.The Galley: The Mediterranean CourserFour dromonds (galleys). Source: Maritime Museum of MadridThe charging courser, or the galley, ruled the Mediterranean. Unlike the cog or carrack, banks of oars plus sails powered their low-profile hulls.Very maneuverable and quick, they ran circles around the slow wind-driven opponents. Often packed with marines, galleys could ram, board, and retreat, making them ideal for raids, defense, or war. Byzantine galleys, known as dromonds, frequently used the lethal Greek Fire in combat. This nearly unquenchable liquid fire often changed the course of a fight.A usual medieval galley was about 80-130 feet, 13-20 feet wide, with a six-foot draft or less. Besides crew, galleys carried marines for boarding/defense. By the late 1500s, the galley fell out of favor, its last major victory being the 1571 Battle of Lepanto.The Carrack: The Blue Water OptionThree-Masted Carrack at Sea. Source: National Gallery of ArtThe carrack represented the ultimate medieval ship development. Appearing in the late 15th century, this ship dominated Atlantic exploration. With lengths reaching up to 150 feet and up to four masts, the carrack possessed the legs for long-distance trading and exploring.The carracks secret lay in its construction and the combination of its sails. Unlike clinker-hull boats, builders laid their carvel-built hull planks edge to edge to create a more rigid surface. Carracks also used square and lateen sails together for windward sailing. Capable of transporting 1,000 tons, Spanish and Portuguese captains sailed carracks to Africa, the Americas, and Asia.

The Medieval period was a time of uncertainty when Europe was fractured after the fall of Rome. The dominant socio-political structure was feudalism, where social standing meant everything, from the lowest serfs to the most powerful kings. In the upper echelons of society, noblemen jostled for power in a challenging time where shifting allegiances could leave one wealthy beyond imagination or a corpse on the battlefield.How noblemen achieved power in Medieval times was a dangerous and complex game, and one that was greatly influenced by the vicissitudes of the era.The Feudal System: A Foundation for an EraMarginal drawing from the Luttrell Psalter of peasants threshing a bound sheaf, ca. 1325 to 1335. Source: British Library on Flickr/Wikimedia CommonsAfter the fall of the Roman Empire, the power structure in Europe changed dramatically. Gone was the centralized power of the ancient era. The continent was fragmented, and localized power sprang up in its place. Imperial rule was replaced with feudalism.Encompassing social, economic, and political structures, feudalism was the evolving series of hierarchical foundations upon which the medieval society in Europe operated. Central to feudalism was the concept of land ownership and the loyalties that came with it. The king was the ultimate landowner, and he granted huge tracts of land to lords, who in turn granted parcels of land (fiefs) to lesser nobles, which included the knightly class. In return for the land, people were obliged to provide vassalage to their liege lords, fighting for them in times of war.Thus, the concept of nobility was determined in no small part by the ownership and control of land and the people who worked it. As such, the primary source of wealth was agricultural output. Trade routes also ran through land, bringing in profit. Control had to be maintained, and lords invested heavily in stamping their authority over their fiefs.At the bottom of the hierarchy were peasants, whose services kept the population fed. There were different rungs of peasantry, and the lowest, the serfs, were tied to the land they worked on. If the land were sold, the serfs were part of the deal. Many other peasants worked as tenant farmers and laborers on lands owned by others, but had certain freedoms, and were allowed to own their own land, as well as travel.Harlech Castle in Wales. Source: WikipediaCastles, originally built to defend conquered territory, also served as centers of administration and justice. Representing the local lords authority, castles also served as a symbol of status, and a rallying point for the establishment of local offense and defence. From the castle, the lord exercised his legal and economic power over the peasants, but also provided them with security.This system, known as manorialism, was at the very heart of feudalism. Peasants provided labor and agricultural goods to the lord, and in return, they received protection and the right to cultivate the land.The Acquisition of PowerMedieval Polish gentry. Jan Matejko (1838-1893). Source: University of Wrocaw/Wikimedia CommonsBeing part of the noble classes of the Medieval era meant acting the part. Noblemen owed protection and justice to their subjects as well as the maintenance of property. Noblemen also owed allegiance to those above them. They were required to aid the monarch with good counsel, and many noblemen of all classes were placed in council positions to advise the monarch.As powerful as monarchs were, they were not omnipotent, nor omnipresent. They relied on councils to inform them of the goings on in various parts of their realm, and when the monarch was unable to run the kingdom personally, it was left to nobles in the council. Many nobles were savvy politicians and exercised roles as diplomats, judges, and policy-makers. And of course, nobles raised armies and were expected to fight for the crown. Nobles who performed well earned recognition and favor, while those who performed poorly risked being sidelined.Nobles exercised shrewd politicking to get ahead, and this brought them into conflict with their peers. As was often the case, conflict arose that boiled over into physical skirmishes as loyal soldiers took to the field to fight for their lord.Marriage of John I of Brabant and Margaret of Flanders by Jan van Boendale, ca. 1350. Source: KBR (Koninklijke Bibliotheek and Bibliothque royale). Brabantsche Yeesten [ms. IV 684] [boek IV], page 86/Wikimedia CommonsAnother important cornerstone of acquiring power was the dynamic of marriage. Powerful families sought alliances that would be mutually beneficial, usually for political or territorial gain. This was often done through joining houses. As such, marriage was generally an affair that was arranged, and the husband and wife were often strangers, never having met before the arrangement. The family of the bride-to-be would usually give a dowry to the family of the groom. This dowry would be presented to the groom or the family of the groom on the day of the marriage.Girls could be married off as soon as they were teenagers, and could be betrothed before, while their husbands were usually a few years older. Society, however, was not blind to those who were too emotionally or physically young to be put to the rigors of marriage expectations. Close acts of physical intimacy were frowned upon until the girl was considered old enough to handle pregnancy. Sadly, however, young brides were often subjected to intimate relations regardless of whether they wanted them or not.Maintaining the SystemFamous noblemen who were involved in the fight for Scotlands independence. Detail from a frieze by William Hole in the entrance hall of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn order to perpetuate the hierarchy and reduce the possibility of people challenging power, titles and positions were hereditary. The prevalent systems were those in which nobles passed their positions, along with their land and wealth, on to their firstborn son. While this mitigated the chances of lower classes making a bid for power, it did generate power struggles between children and other relatives who had legitimate claims on the inheritance of the deceased lord. In addition, what constituted legitimacy was also a contested idea. Such crises of succession were common in the Middle Ages, and they often led to skirmishes and war. In fact, the Hundred Years War was one such example of a dispute over succession. It was fought over the claim to the French throne.German heraldry from the Hyghalmen Roll, ca. 1485. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThere were various ways in which nobles legitimized their position. One such way was the use of heraldry and the creation of coats of arms. Another act of legitimacy was the creation of sumptuary laws that encouraged dress codes for different classes of people. In this, the nobility displayed their wealth in an overt fashion. By the Late Medieval period, the rising class of bourgeois merchants was able to accrue wealth that challenged the financial dominance of the nobility. In so doing, the nobility feared the bourgeoisies ability to undermine the perceived power of the nobility. Sumptuary laws limited the conspicuous consumption by the bourgeoisie and thus preserved the image of the wealth of the upper class.The Kings Assert PowerStatue of King Edward I, Burgh by Sands, Cumbria. Source: Mertbiol/Wikimedia CommonsIn many ways, feudalism undermined the authority of the monarch. Decentralized power meant that lords with their own armies and control over their territories could challenge the might of the throne. With so much power in the hands of nobles, it stands to reason that many monarchs felt uneasy, as their power could be challenged militarily. Monarchs, however, were not without recourse, and throughout the era, they enacted methods to solidify their power and reduce that in the hands of nobles.The way in which they did this varied from kingdom to kingdom. Notable examples include Henry II of England, who increased royal power by expanding royal lands and reducing baronial power. The institution of common law allowed the monarchy to centralize and assert more control over local lords. In France, Philip II skillfully exploited conflicts between his vassals, using both military force and diplomacy to gain more control. Engaging in successful conquests also solidified the power of kings. Ferdinand III of Castile conquered Muslim territories during the Reconquista, while Edward I of England successfully conquered Wales.Common methods of reducing the power of the nobility involved the king making alliances with the church, as well as the middle class and the evolving towns and cities that wielded increasing commercial powers. Kings also maintained standing armies and hired mercenaries to keep control.Merchants depicted in De rerum naturis, unknown artist, circa 1022-1032, Monte Cassino, Italy. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRoyal lands were expanded through conquest, purchase, and inheritance, while the development of efficient tax collection services increased wealth in the royal treasury. Royal authority was also stamped through expanding effective bureaucracies and administrative systems that enforced the crowns power.From the other side of the class divide, the rising wealth of the bourgeoisie was also a challenge to the power of the nobles. With financial gain came economic power and the ability to buy political power as well. The bourgeoisie found themselves in a position where their wealth could also fund rebellions. No sumptuary laws could change this fact!Nobles wielded significant military power. Source: Pixabay/NeedpixDespite the common idea of nobles living easy lives due to their privileged status in society, Medieval times were not easy for any class of people. There were undeniable challenges and hardships that existed along with difficult decisions, varied duties, and expectations.Being a noble meant having to play a game of political maneuvering and power plays where the outcome was never certain.

Modern movies would have us believe that peasant life in medieval England was brutal and filthy, as they were ruthlessly exploited by the ruling classes. But the life of a peasant in medieval England was actually quite enjoyable. Yes, famines and diseases were a constant threat, and social mobility was limited,What Was the Difference Between Freemen and Serfs?Serfs as depicted in the Queen Marys Psalter, 14th century. Source: Medievalminds.comPeasants in England were divided into two main classes: Freemen and Serfs. Serfs were bound to labor for the lord (usually three days a week), while freemen had more freedom in the labor they chose to perform. Instead of paying their way through labor, freemen paid rent in taxes. There was intermarriage and mobility between the two groups. In some situations, a Freeman might make the pragmatic decision to become a Serf to get access to a better plot of land or escape high taxes. Serfs also had opportunities to become Freemen. However, different rules that governed their status could make things like inheritance tricky.All peasants were far from being slaves, especially after the Norman conquest. There was a massive effort by the Normans to grant both Serfs and Freemen substantial rights. They were given political representation and could argue their issues in the court. Lords were strictly forbidden from beating peasants, and huge fines were levied for breaking this law.Working the Land in Medieval EnglandPeasants engaged in threshing, from manuscript Luttrell Psalter, c. 1320-1340. Source: British Library, LondonMedieval Europe was defined by the feudal system, and four in every five people were peasants. The majority of those were serfs tied to the land. However, unlike slaves who were bonded to people, peasants were bonded to plots of land. Landlords owned the land, and the peasants happened to come with it. Also, unlike enslaved people, peasants had opportunities to make a decent living, and entrepreneurial peasants could become wealthy.While this may not seem like a great way to live, peasants did have certain rights. Their houses and the pieces of land they worked on were kept in the family and passed down. Even though they were required to pay rent, their bond to the land also meant that their lord could not simply evict them. The landlord was also forbidden from depriving peasants of their livelihood. As such, there was certain job security for everyone in the family.Landlords could be from a number of different sectors of society. They could be major or minor nobility, the church, or even, in some cases, other peasants, who had acquired the land after becoming wealthy.Medieval Farming TechnologyHorses pulling a heavy plow, in the Macclesfield Psalter manuscript, c. 1330-1340. Source: Fitzwilliam Museum, CambridgeFarming the land was much easier than it had been during ancient times when the Romans ruled over England. This was thanks to the introduction of various new technologies, such as the heavy moldboard plow in the 10th century, which replaced the lighter ard plow. This heavy plow made tilling the hard, claylike earth of Northern Europe much easier and quicker. The collars that connected the plow to the draft animal were also improved. Until the Middle Ages, horses could not be used for plowing because the collar would choke them. Now horses could replace oxen, working faster and with greater stamina.Vetches or poor mans peas gave nitrogen back to the soil and provided feed for farm animals, via Sow Right SeedsThe peasants practiced crop rotation and were aware of the need to retain the quality of the soil by planting certain crops at certain times of the year. Although they would not have known about the specifics of what nitrogen was, they knew that planting certain crops in a field after a crop of wheat would restore the properties of the soil. The main crops harvested in England were wheat, barley, oats, rye, and peas. Alfalfa and vetches were used to improve the soil and harvested as food for cattle, horses, pigs, and sheep.Having Fun: What Did Peasants Do for Leisure?Reenactors as peasants enjoying a game of Nine Mens Morris. Source: Iron Shepherds Living HistoryFinishing work quicker meant there was more time for relaxation or investing in other pursuits that could bring income to the family. Holidays and vacation time were extremely common and often mandatory! Sundays off were obligatory, as were many religious holidays and feast days. In individual areas, weddings, births, and funerals might also be on occasion for time off, and most landlords were generous. Days might even be given off when minstrels, mummers, fairs, and plays were in town. During times of high wages and good harvests, peasants could expect to work no more than 150 days a year.The pace of work was leisurely, and peasants worked, on average, far fewer hours during the day than workers in the modern age. Manorial records from England show that peasants in the 14th century worked an average of 27.7 hours a week. And unlike in the modern era, there was no stressful commute!During all their free time, there were plenty of things to do. Various games such as Dice and Nine Mens Morris were popular, along with variants of Skittles and particularly violent versions of football or soccer. These games often devolved into chaos that involved good-natured fighting and wrestling.The Importance of the Medieval English Wool IndustryEnglish sheep produced high-quality wool. Source: Cotswold Family HolidaysOne of the biggest industries in Europe during the medieval era was the wool industry, and the best wool came from England. Sheep became very valuable to peasants during this time. In the 14th century, London joined the Hanseatic League, a conglomeration of merchant guilds and trading towns in Northern Europe. This gave peasants with sheep and those who invested in the wool industry a link to the rest of Europe. Through this market, some English peasants found financial success.The wool industry was so important to England that it formed the backbone of the entire economy. From 1250 to 1350, the industry was so successful that numerous wool churches were built, financed by the money from the wool trade.Whats on the Menu? The Peasant DietSalmon, pea pottage, and bread. Source: Modern History TVThe peasant diet in England was hearty and nutritious. Vegetables were available, such as cabbage, peas, onions, turnips, swedes, carrots, parsnips, beans, leeks, and many others. Local herbs were readily available in gardens and were used to add flavor to dishes. Meat, such as mutton, beef, and pork, was available too. Chicken and eggs were also part of the diet, and dairy was present everywhere. Milk, butter, and cheese were produced in abundance.Bacon was a staple in the winter. Many peasant families had a pig, as they were easy to feed and provided plenty of meat to sustain a family through the winter. Pigs were so common, in fact, that laws had to be created to govern their ownership. Even in towns, each family owned a pig. Swineherds could even be hired to look after pigs during the day.Nevertheless, bread formed the backbone of the peasant diet. While white bread went to the nobility, the peasants were stuck with the healthier brown bread. Oats, barley, rye, and wheat could be turned into bread or added to other foods.A 14th-century butcher shop, c. 1350. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMost settlements were close to rivers and waterways, and peasants were generally free to go fishing. Salmon was a common item on the peasant menu. In fact, during the medieval period, salmon was seen as peasant food!Fruits were grown and added to the diet. Berries, mushrooms, and a host of other foodstuffs could also be foraged in nearby woods.Ale was also readily available and drunk in quantity, especially if the local water source was suspicious (which happened, but wasnt as common as modern preconceptions).Personal Hygiene in the Medieval EraAsh was a readily available ingredient for soap. Source: NapoleonContrary to popular belief, peasants were not filthy wretches caked in mud. They bathed and tried to keep themselves free of awful smells. Diseases during the medieval era were thought to emanate from miasma, transmitted through bad odors, and especially through the breath. Therefore, keeping ones mouth smelling decent was of prime concern.While toothpaste wasnt available, and toothbrushes were expensive luxuries, peasants used a young twig from a tree, such as hazel, which was found all over England. Chewing the end of the twig exposes fibers that can be used to brush teeth. Salt was added to the mix as an abrasive, and a clove would freshen the breath.To clean the body, animal fat and wood ash were mixed to make an excellent soap. Sage, thyme, and other freshly scented plants could be added to the mixture to leave the peasant smelling as fresh as a daisy. If all else failed, ash with a bit of water works as a degreaser, but it is corrosive, and using it had to be done quickly to avoid getting burns!Canterbury Tales: Traveling as a PeasantPeasants on a Track, by Jan Brueghel the Elder, . 1600-1610. Source: National Gallery, LondonMany peasants lived and died on their plots of land without seeing much of the world. For others, however, travel was part and parcel of life. Making trips to the market was a necessary feature of some lives, while religious pilgrimages could hardly be denied by the lords. For peasants, travel would have been on foot. It was a slow but leisurely method that allowed the peasants to admire the scenery and enjoy the social life of traveling.To leave the plot of land to which they were bonded, peasants generally had to obtain permission from the landlord, but this rule doesnt seem to have been strictly enforced. Furthermore, its important to note that the land was not a prison. Peasants who lived there could come and go very easily.The roads were full of travelers from all walks of life, and traveling was a way to meet new and interesting people. Geoffrey Chaucers Canterbury Tales are all about this feature of medieval England.Relocation & UrbanizationWedding Dance in the Open Air, by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, c. 1566. Source: ArtUKTravel was also a necessary feature for any peasant on the run! Although landlords tried to keep the peace with the subjects under their care, there were altercations that could cause a peasant to flee. Monasteries and nunneries were separate from the law and would take in strays, although being expected to live the life of a monk or a nun could prove a bit much for an outlaw peasant.Another option was to escape to the towns that were growing at the time. This rapid growth meant that towns were always looking for labor, and a peasant could easily find work and protection there. The law stipulated that any peasant would be free of their prior duties and injustices if they evaded capture for a year and a day.Times have changed considerably, as have outlooks and attitudes to life. While the peasant life might not seem appealing today, there was plenty to enjoy. Of course, famine, disease, rebellions, and wars could disturb daily life, much like they do today. Overall, peasants lived fulfilling lives characterized by happiness and laughter, death and sorrow, marriages and births, fun and games, friendships and love.

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