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The most common definition of oligarchy, from the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, is a form of government in which political power is in the hands of a small minority. What that means is that a smaller group of people holds power over the bigger group of population. Oligarchy is in contrast to democracy, and as a political system, is complex and has specific elements. Read on to discover what makes one political regime an oligarchy and how to recognize oligarchic elements.How Do We Define an Oligarchy?The Moneychangers, Marinus van Reymerswale, the first half of the 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Hermitage Museum, Saint PetersburgEvery political system and form of government has its particular features that can be investigated on a scientific and cultural basis.The word oligarchy comes from ancient Greek. It is formed from the words oligos, meaning few, and rkhein, meaning to rule.As a phenomenon, oligarchy is studied by political, sociological, and economic scientists. Political scientists usually define it as a government in which a relatively small group wields authority over a larger part of the population. That small group normally originates from a similar society, usually from the upper class, or belongs to the same political party.Unlike political scholars, social scientists explain oligarchy as a concentration of power within a select group of elite people while the rest, the majority, have limited input in decision-making processes. Economists, on the other hand, define it as a scenario where several big corporations control the market, leading to monopolistic situations.With that being said, there are some standard characteristics of oligarchy. So, what is an oligarchy? To recognize an oligarchic regime, one can look for the following clues:Almost every oligarchy has an unequal balance of power;Participation in political processes is limited, and democratic practices are often absent;Politics are easily influenced by money and power;Opposition is silenced and threatened in different ways, including banning the freedom of speech, spreading false information, or even using force against them;There is usually a show of democracy in the facade of society, like staged elections or the existence of certain institutions.Now that we know what to look for, we can identify six different types of oligarchy: economic, political, corporate, military, social, and religious.Economic, Political, and Corporate OligarchyIron and Coal, William Bell Scott, 1855-1860. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Trust, WallingtonAn economic oligarchy is a state of affairs in which the ruling group has a higher level of authority due to their ability to control the states industry by their financial and social position. Its name itself says itthe ruling class controls large industries, such as banking, technology, or energy. Thus, laws and political decisions are made to serve their interests, much to the detriment of the majority of the population. In an economic oligarchy, political leaders are for sale, and rather than representing the whole state, they support the industrial barons who finance their political campaigns and careers.A political oligarchy as a form of government arises when political power is accorded to a few personalities or parties. These oligarchs manipulate political processes by bribery, coalition, or by manipulating the electoral system. Quite frequently, political leadership is hereditary, and this is done in many cases by authoritarian means. As a result, the primary characteristic of political oligarchy is that the different and opposing views in decision-making processes are silenced, restrained, and excluded.A corporate oligarchy is very much like an economic one, but it refers to the control of a few large business organizations over the political and economic decisions of a state. These corporations usually dictate national policies and elections due to the imperatives of their fields and departments. In particular, their boards of directors set the pace for politicians and the state.Indeed, corporations find ways to influence the government and the political structure through lobbying, campaign contributions, and similar tactics. This way of governing results in a dangerous form of oligarchy where corporations directly shape policies and laws to their advantage.Military, Social, and Religious OligarchyLa Magnanimite de Lycurgue, Jean-Jacques-Francois Le Barbier, 1791. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum of Fine Arts, BostonA military oligarchy is a type of political regime where a junta, a group of military leaders, exercises political power in a state. The most common method by which this type of oligarchy is created is through a coup dtat. The main feature is that generals or other high-ranking officers are the de facto rulers of these countries, relying on the military to stay in power and suppress everyone who disagrees.A social oligarchy is a political system where a certain social class dominates the society. The members of the elite use aristocratic lineage, elitism, or special social status as a means of justifying such authority. The main features of social oligarchy include the social elites control of cultural, political, and economic bodies.To wield this kind of power and input in such a political environment, one needs to have the right connections, belong to the right family, or have the right education. Politics and the formulation of policies are largely a preserve of a particular class, and the rest of the population is either uninvolved or has very limited participation in the decision-making process.A religious oligarchy, or theocracy, can be defined as a political system in which religious leaders or institutions exercise political power, stating that they rule by divine order. The most frequent feature of religious oligarchies is that political power is dictated through dogmatic religious doctrines. In other words, religious laws and regulations are applied to the laws and policies of a country. As a result, in such a political system, there is no distinction between religious and political authority, and there is no secularization.Oligarchy Throughout HistoryLeonidas at Thermopylae, Jacques-Louis David, 1814. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Louvre Museum, ParisKnown for its brave soldiers, Sparta was one of the most famous oligarchies in ancient history. A Greek polis (city-state) governed by a small group of elite warriors, Sparta was technically a dual monarchy. However, because it was ruled by a small cohort of people and prioritized military strength and stability, we can say that Sparta functioned as a military oligarchy. One of the most respected ancient philosophers, Aristotle, would consider Sparta an oligarchy because of the power of the few.Even though it is often associated with democracy, Athens was another Greek city-state that could be characterized as an oligarchy at certain times in its history. Thucydides and Xenophon, two of the most famous ancient historians and authors, described the emergence of oligarchy in Athens. In particular, they referred to the Thirty Tyrants in 404 BCE, the Spartan-imposed oligarchy after the Peloponnesian War.The School of Athens, Raphael, 1511. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Apostolic Palace, Vatican Museums, RomeIn medieval Europe, there were many aristocratic monarchies. Oligarchic elements could often be seen and found in the feudal system, where power was held by noble families who controlled the land and crucial resources.This kind of political situation often meant that, although the king was formally a monarch, the actual power belonged to lords and aristocratic clans who possessed a large measure of self-governance within their provinces. They had armed forces and wealth and implemented specific politics in their lands, where they behaved like oligarchs.The Entrance to the Grand Canal, Canaletto, circa 1730. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum of Fine Arts, HustonIn the late medieval period and on the eve of the Early Modern Era, a few Italian city-states were oligarchic or partly oligarchic. They were controlled and governed by wealthy businessmen and aristocrats.The most well-known examples were Florence and the Republic of Venice. While both of them were formally considered to be a republic, the political and economic power belonged to the noble families and the merchant class. The rest of the populace did not have much say in the decision-making process.In the late modern period, with the beginning of industrialization and the birth of capitalism, a lot of countries were oligarchically governed by industrial leaders and corporations. One of the most familiar cases of this new oligarchic condition is the so-called Gilded Age in the United States of America.Sacramento Railroad Station, Carl Wilhelm Hahn, 1874. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Fine Arts Museum, San FranciscoEven though the Gilded Age was characterized by an opulent lifestyle, it also saw the rise of families like the Rockefellers and the Carnegies, who grew extremely affluent and politically powerful. They bought elections, politicians, and the Senate to get policies and laws that would benefit their business, thus creating monopolies. In some areas, corporations dominated the government even in terms of power.The Impact of Oligarchy on SocietyThe Masses, Hunger and Capitalism, drawn by Hahn-Notecracker, The Masses vol. 1 n. 2, 1911. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe effect of oligarchy on society is complex and consists of multiple levels. Oligarchic regimes have played a crucial role in shaping many parts of todays society. Oligarchies, for example, are deemed to foster an increased centralization of economic and political power.According to the influential economist Thomas Piketty, such regimes are beneficial to the elites and the wealthy. As money and power are concentrated, social mobility becomes almost out of sight. A regime that is dominated by oligarchs will always side with a few as compared to the rest of the population.One of the key impacts of oligarchy on society is the initiation of the destruction of democratic processes and norms. Whenever decision-making is centralized, the larger population feels as if they have no say or their say does not count. Such a political climate often leads to political and social instability resulting from distrust in the political institutions.The bosses of the Senate, Joseph Keppler, January 23, 1889. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThroughout history, oligarchies, or political systems with oligarchic tendencies, have led to revolutionary actions, armed struggles, and violent conflicts. Oligarchy is also one of the factors behind the emergence of populismwhich can also undermine some democratic gains.However, democracy and democratic processes are also more valuable when oligarchy is a viable possibility. Indeed, the looming threat of oligarchy reminds citizens of the importance of protecting political freedoms and fair elections. On the contrary, in an oligarchic regime, there is no democratic equality. As a result, many people are left without having a say in matters concerning their livelihoods and future.Oligarchy is a disadvantageous system of governance because it undermines freedom, democracy, and development. Overall, it maintains elitism and the rule of the few over the many.Further reading:Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Harvard University Press.

Situated in the Drakensberg mountain chain, the lowest point of Lesotho is 1,400 meters (4,593 feet) above sea level, the highest low point of any country. In fact, the entirety of the country is dominated by mountains. It is for this reason that Lesotho is known as the Mountain Kingdom. Unsurprisingly, the mountains played a decisive factor in shaping the history of this small kingdom, completely surrounded by South Africa.Lesotho has experienced a unique and storied history from its establishment in the early 19th century to the present day.The Ancient Beginnings of the Kingdom of LesothoCave paintings by the San people, in Sehlabathebe National Park, Lesotho. Source: fabulousfabs/Flickr via Store Norske LeksikonLong before Lesotho was ever realized as a state, the area that it now occupies was home to nomadic San people for thousands of years before they were displaced by Bantu migrations moving southwards. Around the 16th century, African farmers belonging to the Sotho people moved into the area, establishing villages and communities as they began to dominate the region.These people represented the foundation of what would become a future independent state. In South Africa and Lesotho, the Sotho people that live in this region are referred to as Southern Sotho or Basotho, and while most live in South Africa, over 2.2 million Basotho people form the population of Lesotho today.A Time of Turbulence and the Birth of a NationA map of Southern Africa in the early 19th century, showing the Zulu Empire and the results of the Mfecane/Difaqane/Lifaqane, by Discott. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe beginnings of what would become a national identity and independent state were prompted by a time of massive upheaval known as the Difaqane, Lifaqane, or Mfecane, each meaning scattering, crushing, forced dispersal, or forced migration. The phenomenon is a subject of huge debate in Southern Africa, as the evidence of its causes and effects is open to academic challenge.The most popular and widely accepted theory is that it was instigated by the military expansion of the Zulu Kingdom under the control of Shaka Zulu. However, it may have been exacerbated by drought and overpopulation, amongst other factors.Thaba Bosiu, by Marduk. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn this immensely violent time, huge numbers of refugees fled their homes in search of safety. Much of this safety was offered by the geographic features of what would become Basutoland, where independent chiefs held formidable and defensible positions in the mountains.One such chief was King Moshoeshoe. In 1824, Moshoeshoe was attacked at Butha-Buthe, and although the attackers were driven off, Moshoeshoe became fearful that his position was not defensible enough. Seeking safety, Moshoeshoe and his people, many of whom were refugees fleeing the Lifaqane, trekked 72 miles (116 kilometers) to the Qiloane plateau, later renamed Thaba Bosiu, where the positions were more defensible. The journey was difficult. It took nine days, and Mashoeshoes grandfather fell victim to a group of cannibals known as the Malimo, who had been driven to desperation by the Lifaqane.King Moshoeshoe with his ministers. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Bensusan Museum, JohannesburgAt Thaba Bosiu, Moshoeshoe set up camp and began what would evolve into a kingdom. He forgave the Malimo and lent them cattle to lift them out of poverty. This practice of lending cattle, known as mafisa, played an important role in bringing local clans together, which became the core of the Basotho nation.Before long, missionaries arrived, introducing new crops and livestock to Basutoland. Schools were built, and the first books were printed in Sesotho. Under Moshoeshoes long reign, Basutoland became an independent state with considerable diplomatic power, but the future would not be defined by peace and security.Conflict With EuropeansThe Trekbur by Samuel Daniell, ca. 1804. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the 1830s, there was contact with Boers trekking northeast from the British-owned Cape Colony. These new arrivals attempted to colonize lands north of the Caledon River, an area they claimed had been abandoned by the Sotho people. In an effort to shield himself and his nation from this encroachment, Moshoeshoe signed a treaty in the Cape Colony with the British, who subsequently annexed the territory claimed by the Boers. This foresight shown by Moshoeshoe guaranteed the autonomy of his state and proved the kings wisdom in dealing with colonial threats. In 1852, a clash between Moshoeshoes forces and the British regarding Basotho cattle raiding threatened to turn into a war, but Moshoeshoes insistence on settling the dispute diplomatically prevented further conflict.The following years proved bloody as the Sotho and the Boers competed for land. After three decades, the Boers managed to secure vast areas beyond the Caledon River. This land became part of the independent Boer republic known as the Orange Free State. Seeking protection, Moshoeshoe sent an appeal to Queen Victoria, and in 1868, Basutoland was annexed as a British protectorate.Complete AnnexationAttack on Lerotholi Letsies stronghold (Basutoland, 1880). Source: Wikimedia Commons/Illustrated London NewsIn 1869, the Governor of the Cape and the Boers of the Orange Free State signed the Treaty of Aliwal North, which delineated Basutolands borders. Much of the protectorates western territory was ceded to the Boer republic. The following year, Moshoeshoe died at the age of 84 and was succeeded by Letsie, his eldest son.Basutoland was annexed by the Cape Colony in 1871, and Basutolands power structures immediately came under attack. Trade was restricted, and Basothos legislative powers were transferred to the parliament in Cape Town.The Cape Colony passed the Peace Preservation Act in 1878, a move that allowed for the legal confiscation of firearms from the African population. Despite the offer of compensation, the Basotho people rose up in rebellion.Portrait of Sir Hercules Robinson at the Hong Kong Museum of History, by Kongma. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1879, a southern chief named Morosi rose up in revolt to defend the independence of his territory south of the Orange River. While Britain refused to help the Cape Colony deal with the situation militarily, Letsie, the paramount chief, along with many of the other chiefs, helped the Cape Colony, and Morosis forces were crushed. Basutoland and the Cape Colony were, however, by no means on good terms. The attempt to disarm the Basotho people led to war in September 1880.The conflict was financially draining on the Cape Colony, and there was little to show for the war effort. On April 29, 1881, Sir Hercules Robinson, the High Commissioner of Southern Africa, announced an end to the conflict, and with further efforts of disarmament resisted, the Disannexation Act in September 1883 was passed, turning Basutoland into a British High Commission Territory rather than a part of the Cape Colony.The following decades were marked by mounting tensions and war between Britain and the Boer Republics. On May 31, 1902, the devastating conflict that was the Second Anglo-Boer War came to an end, and the Boer republics were absorbed into the British Empire.The Union of South Africa was created in 1910, merging the colonial possessions into a single polity. Basutoland, however, was not part of this arrangement and remained a separate territory under British rule until 1966.Major Developments in the Mid-20th CenturyCurrent flag of Lesotho. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBasutolands status as a colony remained unchanged for several decades, well into the second half of the 20th century. The winds of change, however, were blowing across Africa, and colonial territories were being granted independence. Basutoland was no exception to this dynamic.Political parties emerged in the 1950s that pushed for independence, and in 1966, independence was gained. Basutoland became the Kingdom of Lesotho with King Moshoeshoe as the head of state and Chief Leabua Jonathan of the Basotho National Party (BNP) as prime minister. Leabua Jonathan was one of the many great-grandchildren of Moshoeshoe who had around 140 wives.Political developments, however, would be far from democratic. In 1970, the BNP lost the countrys first elections to the Basotho Congress Party (BCP). Leabua Jonathan refused to give up power and had the leadership of the BCP imprisoned. Despite creating a National Assembly in 1973, which included prominent BCP leaders, it was not enough to avoid rebellion.In 1974, the BCP attempted a coup but was unsuccessful, and the BCPs leader, Ntsu Mokhehle, went into exile. As the years passed, the international community provided aid to Lesotho, but the countrys problems of poverty and dependence on South Africa, which completely surrounded it, continued. Despite its economic dependency on South Africa, relations between the countries were not good. The Leabua Jonathan government remained hostile to South Africa, criticizing the policy of apartheid on multiple occasions.Leabua Jonathan. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Archives of the Netherlands, The HagueIn 1986, a military takeover of the government occurred, and Justin Lekhanya, as Chairman of the Military Council, ruled in conjunction with King Moshoeshoe II. In 1990, Lekhanya stripped the king of his executive and legislative powers. He announced the establishment of a National Constituent Assembly with the task of formulating a new constitution and returning the country to civilian rule. Before the country could transition, however, Lekhanya was ousted in 1991 by a group of officers. Letsie III was installed as king, and in 1995, he abdicated. The throne returned to his father, Moshoeshoe II.Moshoeshoe died in a car accident the following year, and Letsie III became king again. By this time, however, a new constitution had been enacted, leaving the monarchy without any executive power. The BCP had won a landslide victory in the 1993 elections, and Ntsu Mokhehle became the prime minister.The next few years were marked by violence and unrest, in part as a result of South Africa dismantling the apartheid regime. This resulted in employment opportunities for South Africans and reduced employment opportunities for the people of Lesotho, who had relied on opportunities within South Africa.South Africa IntervenesSouth African soldiers. Source: Defense Visual Information Distribution Service (public domain)Mokhehle was dismissed by the BCP in 1997, and he went on to form his own party, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD). With two-thirds of the parliament supporting him, he remained as prime minister, and the BCP became the opposition party in government.Elections were held again in 1998, with the LCD winning in a landslide, claiming 79 of the 80 seats in parliament. Opposition parties were up in arms, claiming the elections were fraudulent. Unrest and violence gripped the country, and the LCD requested South African help in quelling the unrest and restoring order. On September 22, 1998, troops from South Africa and Botswana (representing the Southern African Development Community, or SADC) entered Lesotho.Despite the widespread looting and destruction, the SADC forces restored order, and Lesotho agreed to create an Interim Political Authority (IPA) to prepare for elections in 2000. The IPA was made up of representatives from Lesothos major political parties.The Kingdom of Lesotho in the 21st CenturyThe people and the landscape of Lesotho. Source: Danmarks Nationalleksikon/Chiemgau Biking on Flickr (CC BY ND 2.0)Developments in Lesothos political sphere remain far from ideal. In 2014, Prime Minister Thomas Thabane was forced to flee the country after he was named as a suspect in the murder of his ex-wife. In 2020, he formally stepped down from his post, and two years later, the charges were dropped.Today, Lesotho is a country with many challenges. In 2007, a major drought pushed the government to declare a state of emergency, while HIV/AIDS continues to have a major impact on the countrys economy. About a fifth of the countrys 2.2 million people have the disease, but this rate is declining.Despite the difficulties, there is plenty of hope for the small African country, especially in terms of its energy resources. In 2004, the country opened the first phase of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project, developed in partnership with South Africa. The project supplies water to the Gauteng region of South Africa and provides hydroelectric power to the people of Lesotho.Basotho people on horses, by Olivier Flambeau, 2014. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCurrent forecasts are generally positive in many areas, with the economy set to grow at a reasonable rate while agricultural yields and the manufacturing sector continue to expand. The tourism industry is also growing, which is not surprising given the spectacular beauty of the country. With scenic drives, incredible vistas, and an environment perfect for hiking and other outdoor activities, the Kingdom of Lesotho is a country that begs further investigation from the foreign sector.