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A top official in the Third Reich, Rudolf Hess started out as one of Adolf Hitlers most trusted right-hand men. However, as the Nazi party embedded itself across Germany, then Europe, pushing towards World War II, Hess made decisions that resulted in his ousting, with no friends to be found on either side of the conflict.Even several decades after his death, questions surround Hess concerning everything from his decision-making to the cause of his demise.Early Life: Egypt to EuropeFrom a family of merchants, Hess would one day wear a white Nazi officers cap. Source: Noah Wulf / Wikimedia CommonsDespite his reputation as a German nationalist devoted to the Fatherland and the Nazi party, Rudolf Hess did not get his start in Germany itself. Born in 1894 in a suburb of Alexandria, Egypt, Hess was the son of a German merchant. His education began in Alexandria, and he was taken to Germany, where he joined the military at the onset of World War I. It was amongst the horrors of war that Hess met a man in his regiment who became an architect of horror himself: Adolf Hitler. He remained close to Hitler after the conclusion of the war and was hired as Hitlers personal secretary in 1920. In doing so, he also became a member of the new Nazi Party, which was slowly spreading throughout Germany and gaining traction among the people.Hess and the Nazis Rise to PowerParticipants in the Beer Hall Putsch: Hitler, Emil Maurice, Hermann Kriebel, Hess, and Friedrich Weber. Source: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz / Wikimedia CommonsIn 1923, members of the Nazi Party, including Hess and Hitler, put together an attempt to overthrow the Bavarian government. Their efforts, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, failed, and many were imprisoned. Hess and Hitler were incarcerated at Landsberg, where Hitler began composing his infamous text, Mein Kampf. Hess, continuing as Hitlers secretary, took much of the dictation for his bosss tome.Over the next ten years, Hitler and the Nazis would rise to power, with Hitler taking the role of Chancellor of Germany in 1933. Hitler took his friends to the top with him, and Rudolf Hess was one of these men, appointed Deputy Fhrer by his friend. This position left him second in the line of succession in the Nazi administration, second only to Hermann Gring, who held a number of titles in Hitlers cabinet.A postcard of Rudolf Hess, from 1936. Source: Surrey MilitariaHess held a number of titles throughout the existence of Germanys Nazi regime, including being a deputy in charge of Party organization, a cabinet minister, and third deputy. Hess held the authority to make many decisions for Party leadership, including the authority to approve all suggested legislation from other cabinet ministers before it was brought to law. He supported the establishment of compulsory military service for Germans and was a strong proponent of German sacrifices in pre-World War II preparations for rearmament, repeating in many speeches to the public, Guns instead of butter.The Tables TurnHess conversing with other Nazi officers during a 1941 visit to the English Channel. Source: National Digital Archives / Wikimedia CommonsIn Hitlers early days of power, Hess praised, supported, and advocated for his friend, the Fhrer. During these years, he was cited as Hitlers closest confidant. He knew of Hitlers plans for German aggression throughout Europe and publicly praised Hitlers actions, such as the invasion of Poland. Later, he would attempt to justify these actions further by blaming the atrocities of World War II on England and France. While there is no evidence that he participated in concentration camp atrocities or the destruction that was perpetrated in Eastern Europe, it is believed that Hess likely had knowledge of these activities. Despite his quiet allowance of Hitlers genocidal activities, Hess was apparently feeling that things had gone too far. With a conscience that appeared to weigh on him, in 1941, Hess made a decision that resulted in the severance of his relationship with Hitler.A Solo Flight for PeaceHitler, center, features in a Nazi propaganda photo in 1930 or 1931, with Hess behind him on the right. Source: National Digital Archives / Wikimedia CommonsOn May 10, 1941, Hess stole a plane near Munich shortly before six oclock in the afternoon and piloted it up the Rhine River and across the North Sea. The flight required skill, as Hess was alone on a foggy night, relying only on charts and maps over unfamiliar territory. However, he completed his flight plan, reaching his destination of Scotland by 10:30 that night. Still, he didnt quite make it to his destination, Dungavel House, home of the Duke of Hamilton. He ran out of fuel and was forced to bail from his plane, which crashed in a farmers field about twelve miles from Dungavel.He was unharmed, with the exception of a sprained ankle, thanks to a fully operational parachute. The farmer brought him home and served him tea before he was turned over to the police. Hess gave his name as Captain Horn and insisted on speaking to the Duke of Hamilton. Hess chose Hamilton because he was a high-ranking British official, but one who, unlike Prime Minister Churchill, was willing to consider peace with the Nazis without their total obliteration.One of the engines of Hess Messerschmitt Bf 110 plane, on display at the National Museum of Flight in East Lothian, Scotland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOnce he was finally granted an audience with the duke, Hess revealed his real identity, but Hamilton was unconvinced. Nevertheless, he called Churchill and told him the story. It was immediately dismissed, but later, the prime minister reconsidered and requested the foreign secretary to look into the situation. An undersecretary, Ivone Kirkpatrick, was able to identify Hess without any uncertainty, and he and the duke returned to meet with the Nazi.Hess explained that his mission was to convince the British government that Nazi victory was inevitable and that it was the right time to negotiate peace. Hess claimed that Hitler was on board with his efforts and had left negotiations to him. However, he did admit that Hitler was unaware of his trip, which significantly diminished his value as a negotiator. Believing Hess had little ability to make any actual inroads for peace, his pleas fell on deaf British ears. He was imprisoned on June 16 and spent the remainder of World War II in British hands, transferred between various locations.Severed TiesAdolf Hitler, Hermann Gring, Joseph Goebbels, and Rudolf Hess at a Nazi rally in the 1930s. Source: US National Archives / Wikimedia CommonsHess actions made him an enemy of his former friends, including Adolf Hitler. In the time leading up to the flight, Hess compatriots had noticed he was acting oddly, perhaps even mentally unstable. In fact, Gring described him as mad.Interrogated Nazis later expressed that Hitler did not rant and rave about Hess actions. At the same time, other first-person testimonies said that Hitler was furious and ordered Hess shot on sight if he was ever seen in Germany again. For some time, it was suggested that Hitler did, in fact, approve of the flight, but the current belief by most historians is that this theory is false.Hitler replaced Hess with Martin Bormann immediately and began spreading the idea to the press that Hess suffered from mental derangement. However, it was a bad look for the Fhrers deputy to have been of unsound mind, so the story was later altered by Joseph Goebbels to state that Hess had been lured into a trap by the British. Regardless of how the spin doctors structured the story, the message was clear: Hess was no longer a trusted member of the Nazi Party.Trial and ImprisonmentThe Defendants Dock at the Nuremberg Trials. Hess is seated in the first row of defendants, second from left. Source: US National Archives / Wikimedia CommonsAfter the war ended, Hess was transferred from incarceration in England to Nuremberg, Germany, to participate as a defendant in the famous Nuremberg Trials. During these proceedings, England, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union cooperated to bring Nazi war criminals to justice. Hess was charged with war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. The tribunal at Nuremberg found that although Hess may have had knowledge of Nazi war crimes, there was insufficient evidence connecting him with these crimes to sustain a guilty verdict. His charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity resulted in him being found not guilty.However, his crimes against peace charges stood, and he was found guilty. The court maintained that while he had attempted a peace mission, he had attempted to justify Germanys actions and blame Allied forces for the ongoing war. The court also noted that Hess Acts in an abnormal manner, and his mental state had deteriorated in the time leading up to and during the trial. There was, however, no evidence that he wasnt sane at the time his crimes were committed. Hess escaped the fate of many of his Nazi compatriotsa death sentencebut was sentenced to life in prison.Death and ControversyA 1968 poster advocating for Hess release. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHess spent the remainder of his life in Spandau prison. As other prisoners died or were freed, Hess became the only remaining inmate at the facility, holding the title for more than 20 years. At that time, a campaign for his release was eventually supported by the British, American, and French governments. However, the Soviet Union refused to consider parole, and Hess remained in prison. His sentence ended only when he died of an apparent suicide, strangling himself with an electrical cord in an exercise yard in 1987.He was ninety-three years of age at the time of his death. Despite the death being ruled as a suicide, some, including Hess own son, claim that Hess demise was murder. Prison officials refuted the possibility, and no evidence has ever arisen from the accusations.The Berlin Brigade of the US Army at Spandau Prison in 1983. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSpandau Prison was demolished after the death of its last prisoner. Hess was buried in Wunsiedel, Germany, but neo-Nazi extremists began making regular pilgrimages to his resting site. As a result, the town removed his remains from the cemetery. Rudolf Hess ashes were cremated and scattered at sea, ending his physical presence on earth amid a mysterious legacy.

After the Russian Empires collapse, the USSR hemorrhaged aristocrats, artists, and intellectuals. The first refugee wave came during the Russian Civil War. These exiles became known as White migrs due to their association with the White armies that fought the Red Army. As refugees from the Revolution overran Europe, 400,000 stateless people arrived in France. Fifty thousand settled in Paris. Most migrs worked in service or entertainment jobs as drivers, door attendants, ticket-sellers, singers, or dancers. Others made lasting contributions to art, music, literature, ballet, and film.1. ArtParis by Konstantin Korovin, 1933; with Paris Boulevard by Konstantin Korovin, 1939. Source: WikiArtParis reigned as a global art center while the Bolshevik Revolution splintered Russian society. Russian migr artists such as Konstantin Korovin (1861-1939) found a home in Paris among the French Impressionists and abstract artists there.Known for his bold brushstrokes, vibrant color use, and evocative landscapes, Korovin became one of the greatest twentieth-century Russian Impressionists.Born into a ruined merchant family, Konstantin Alekseevich Korovin forged his own way in life. As a member of the Abramstvo Circle, a rural artists colony, Korovin joined the Imperial Academy of Arts and later worked as the Bolshoi Theaters chief set designer. During World War I, he supported the Imperial Army as a camouflage security specialist.At home, a small wooden house built on a rural wasteland, Korovin preferred a simple country life. He welcomed other artists there, worked at his easel, and spent hours talking to peasants, hunters, and fishermen in the village. Inspired by his surroundings, Korovins paintings reflect a deep love for humans and nature.Konstantin Korovin (seated), the singer Fyodor Chaliapin, and Korovins son, Aleksey, and daughter Irina at Okhotino, 1900s. Source: Tretyakov Gallery Magazine; with Autumn by Konstantin Korovin, 1888. Source: WikiArtBy 1918, the Soviet government confiscated Okhotino, Korovins beloved estate, along with the land, house, and even its contents. Now homeless and listed as a non-working user, Korovin developed a migrant lifestyle characterized by deep poverty. During the 1921-1922 Russian famine, which killed an estimated five million people, Korovin survived on little food and fewer art supplies. During this time, he taught painting at the State Free Art Workshops. In 1922, Korovin, who had a heart condition, a sick wife, and an invalid son, devised a plan to escape the country.Under the guise of organizing an exhibition and seeking medical treatment, Korovin received approval from Anatoly Lunacharsky, the Soviet Commissar of Enlightenment, to leave the country on a temporary trip.Korovin never returned.In Paris, he scraped a living together with work that paiddesigning one-time costumes and sets for private theaters and ballets. With the rise of film, commissions dwindled. By the 1930s, poverty closed in on Korovin. Reduced to painting on cardboard with watercolor and oils, the artist felt consumed with nostalgia for his homeland.Russian Impressionist migr artist Konstantin Korovin. Source: I. I. Mashkov Volgograd Museum of Fine Arts; with Winter Landscape by Konstantin Korovin, 1930. Source: WikiArtIn one of his last letters, Korovin admitted, I keep remembering Okhotino. Such nature, woods, and the river. . . Was it not paradise? . . . I do not really know or understand what I was guilty of. I worked a lot and have not sinned towards the people. I cannot understand people living in our beautiful and mysterious land.Nevertheless, Korovin found inspiration everywhere. There is nothing that is not beautiful in nature, he once said.He died as he livedon the moveand after a fall, as bombs exploding on the streets of Paris announced the start of the Second World War.Today, Korovins paintings exist in museum collections worldwide, from Londons National Gallery to the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.Fishing Village, Capri, by Georgy Lapshin, 1920s. Source: The Museum of Russian ImpressionismKorovins legacy lived on in the work of his student, Georgy Lapshin (1885-1950). Lapshin, who owned a Moscow art studio before the Revolution, emigrated to France in 1924. As a member of the Society of French Artists, Lapshins work appeared in exhibitions across Europe.Serge Poliakov, another Russian painter associated with the New School of Paris, made his way to France due to the war. His abstract structure and luminous colors inspired Yves Saint-Laurent, who designed a Poliakov-style dress in 1965.Ballet les sylphides by Zinaida Serebriakova, 1924. Source: The Moscow TimesAfter the end of the Russian Civil War, Zinaida Serebriakova, a student of Ilya Repin and a fan of Edgar Degas, left Leningrad in 1924 to complete a quick mural commission. When she tried to return, the Soviets blocked her. Separated from her children, Serebriakova struggled to create in exile.Despite this, Serebriakova became a popular portrait painter in her adopted country and the first Russian woman to gain recognition as a major painter.2. LiteratureThe Alfred Nobel Prize for Literature, awarded 116 times to 120 laureates, was given to Ivan Bunin in 1933 for his strict artistry in the Russian prose tradition. Source: Leeds UniversityWith Tsarist Russias collapse, everything Russian briefly went into vogue in Europe, from Russian literature and cuisine to Cossacks and impoverished Russian nobles. A pervasive image exists of Russian poets wasting away in poverty-stricken Parisian boarding houses or languishing in smoke-filled cafs reeking with melancholy.This trope is rooted in the harsh realities that many White migrs faced.Overwhelmed with the sheer number of refugees, many nations, including France, capped the number of Russian immigrants allowed into the country. Many refugees experienced prejudice and struggled to survive.In 1922, Vladimir Lenin ordered the Cheka to arrest and deport 220 irreconcilable anti-Bolshevik intellectuals aboard philosophers ships. The regime countered this humanitarian act by warning them that they would be shot if they returned home.Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953), whose prose grappled with life after Russia, became an internationally acclaimed author.Ivan Bunin, winner of the Nobel Prize, pictured in 1901. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBorn in rural Russia to an impoverished noble family, Bunin became addicted to reading from a young age. After joining the Sreda Circle literary group, Bunin won the Pushkin Prize twice. Bunin is best known for Falling Leaves, Cursed Days, The Life of Arseniev, and Dark Avenues.A social democrat who never identified as a blueblood, Bunin condemned the Bolshevik Revolution as a human and cultural catastrophe. From 1919 to 1920, Bunin edited an anti-Soviet Volunteer Army newspaper. In January 1920, the couple boarded an evacuation ship for Constantinople.Bunins novel Cursed Days, based on his revolutionary diary, presaged the anti-utopian ideas later popularized by Aldous Huxley and George Orwell.The Sreda Circle, a Moscow literary group in pre-revolutionary Russia, which included Maksim Gorky (bottom left), Leonid Andreyev (second from bottom left), and Ivan Bunin (bottom second from the right). Source: The Moscow TimesBunins first book published in exile was Scream. In 1933, Bunin became the first Russian writer to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature. Afterward, Bunin gave away 120,000 francs from his Nobel Prize money to other struggling migrs.When World War II broke out, Bunin refused to collaborate with publications operating in occupied territories, and his income dwindled. Bunin and his wife retreated to a mountain villa outside Grasse. There, they sheltered Jewish friends under the noses of the occupying German forces. Without any money to live on, Bunin contacted the Union of Writers in Russia for help in the winter of 1946. Until then, Bunins new work could not be published in the Soviet Union, and he received no royalties for previously published novels.That year, Novaya Zemlya published Dark Avenues. Bunin received $300.City of love and war. Source: The Irish TimesWhen the war ended, the Bunins returned to Paris. During his final years, the writer received a monthly pension from Jewish-American philanthropist Frank Atran. Bunin died in a Paris attic room from heart issues in 1953.He had survived Lenin, Hitler, and Stalin.Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977) became one of Frances most famous Russian migr writers, known for novels such as Pale Fire, Lolita, and Invitation to a Beheading. In 1919, Nabokov fled from Soviet-occupied Crimea under a burst of machine gun fire.Paris was the place where Nabokov had a love affair, struggled with poverty and bureaucracy, and held court with other White migr writers from a Montparnasse caf. Nabokovs breakout success novel, Pnin, centers on a Russian refugee who at first seems like a humorous figure but whose story reveals layers of tragedy.Nadezhda Lokhvitskaya, known by her pen name, Teffi; with Vladimir Nabokov. Source: The Paris ReviewThis circle of impoverished but important literary refugees included Aleksandr Kuprin, Ivan Shmelyov, and Marina Tsvetaeva. Georgy Ivanov (1894-1958), another poet of Russias Silver Age, is remembered for his prose poem, Disintegration of the Atom, a brilliant, haunting exploration of migr despair.Nadezhda Lokhvitskaya (1872-1952), known as Teffi, created vivid, humorous, and nostalgic fiction from her Paris perch. Teffi escaped the Red Army during the Civil War, buried in fur coats like her compatriots, on a ship navigating frigid waters into the unknown.By the time the refugees found their way to Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, or France, these coats became threadbare symbols of another life.Yuri Felsen. Source: The Guardian; with Marina Ivanovna Tsvetaeva. Source: Boston UniversityYuri Felsen (1894-1943), known as the Russian Proust, wrote gripping psychological works such as Deceit, infused with rich imagery and wicked humor. The Russian-Jewish writer opposed the Soviets and joined the White forces before emigrating in 1920. Felsen wrote three novels in Paris by the outbreak of World War II.In German-occupied Paris, he was arrested, released, and hidden by friends. When the Resistance attempted to smuggle Felsen across the Swiss border, the Nazis arrested him again. He was sent to the gas chamber on arrival in Auschwitz in 1943.With most of his manuscripts lost or destroyed, this anti-totalitarian writer remains little-known today.The bisexual poet Marina Tsvetaeva (1892-1941) became the lioness of the Russian migr poets. After the Civil War, Tsvetaeva was reunited in Paris with her husband Sergei Efron, an ex-White Army officer. In exile, she published a collection of poems, After Russia. In 1939, Tsvetaeva followed Efron back to Russia when the NKVD recruited him. He was executed after arrival. Tsvetaevas daughter ended up in a labor camp. Her son died in World War II. Devastated, Tsvetaeva committed suicide in 1941. Later, Russian poet Joseph Brodsky would claim, The greatest poet in the twentieth century was a woman.Many exiled writers scraped together a living by writing for refugee newspapers, while others became famous novelists. Their works explore themes of love, loss, identity, trauma, disassociation, paranoia, and memory. These human elements continue to resonate with readers across time.3. BalletBallet Russes scene from Sadko by the White Studio, New York, 1911. Source: New York Public LibraryThe ballet world did not escape Russian influence. For centuries, France dominated the ballet scene. In 1909, Sergei Diaghilev founded the Ballets Russes in Paris and established a new trend.Diaghilevs unique skill lay in harnessing a potpourri of creative talent. By World War I, these included avant-garde artists, costumiers, and designers like Pablo Picasso and Leon Bakst, dancers like Vaslav Nijinsky and Mikhail Fokine, and musicians like Igor Stravinsky and Sergei Prokofiev. The Ballets Russes debuted groundbreaking works such as Afternoon of a Faun, Apollo, and the Rite of Spring.When the Revolution occurred, Diaghilev remained in France. His company had a strong influence on the evolution of ballet during the 20th century.Group photograph with the Ballet Russes de Monte Carlo and Sergei Diaghilevs Ballet Russes. Source: New York Public LibrarySome of the greatest dancers in the Ballet Russes included Tamara Karsavina, Tamara Toumanova, and Irina Baranova, known as choreographer George Balachines baby ballerinas.At age six, Tamara Toumanova danced for Anna Pavlova. By age 10, she landed a leading role in the Paris Opera. She claimed to have been born in a boxcar in Russia as her mother and tsarist officer father fled the Bolsheviks. In 1931, Balanchine invited her to join the Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo.Known as the Black Pearl of the Russian Ballet, Toumanova gained an international reputation, dancing abroad and appearing on the silver screen.Tamara Toumanova by George Platt Lynes, 1941. Source: New York Public Library; with White Russian migr ballerina Tamara Karsavina by Jacques-Emile Blanche. Source: The Guardian; with Irina Baranova, baby ballerina of the Ballet Russes de Monte Carlo. Source: Texas Public Radio.Like Toumanova, Irina Baronova came to the Ballets Russes as a baby ballerina whose family fled revolutionary Russia. These baby ballerinas toured over 300 days out of the year. Baronova became a prima ballerina, first in France and later in New York.Other migrs who influenced dance culture in France included Cubo-Futurist artist Natalia Goncharova and her husband, Mikhail Larionov. This duo invented the abstract art style known as Rayonism. In exile, they became leading Ballets Russes designers.4. MusicSergei Rachmaninov, 1920. Source: Library of CongressMusic, like the other arts, flourished in exile. One of the most famous White Russian migrs, pianist and composer Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943), fled revolutionary Russia in 1917. For the next few decades, he conducted a demanding cycle of concerts across the United States and Europe. Rachmaninoff also founded TAIR, a Paris publishing house that focused on works by Rachmaninoff and other exiled composers.Rachmaninoffs musical activities in Paris put him at the center of the Russian migr community. Between 1929 and 1931, Rachmaninoff summered in France near Rambouillet, where he socialized with other Russian migrs.For the quarter of a century between leaving Russia and his death, Rachmaninoff only composed six new works. By 1930, he felt the urge to create again and found a retreat where he could compose in solitude.In 1930, he built Villa Senar in French-speaking Lucerne, Switzerland. Here, he composed his famous Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini during the summer of 1934. His Symphony No. 3, also written there, fused a bittersweet echo of the Jazz Age with memories of a lost Russia and the dissonant notes of Europe on the brink of war. During World War II, Rachmaninoff financially helped other Russian exiles and donated benefits from his concerts to the Soviet Unions fight against Nazi Germany.World War II saw the rise of another Russian migr musician who became the voice of the French Resistance.Born to an aristocratic family in Petrograd, Anna Yurievna Betulinskaya (1917-2006) became a famous French singer. Before Annas first birthday, the Bolsheviks shot her father as an enemy of the Revolution. Using the jewels that she had sewn into her clothes, Annas Greek mother fled to France. In 1934, Anna entered the Ballets de Monte Carlo and took music lessons from Sergei Prokofiev.Travel Document issued to Anna Marly by De Gaulles Free French Forces. Source: Wikimedia; with Anna Marly. Source: AljazeeraShe supported herself by playing the guitar and singing in Paris Scheherazade cabaret. Because she felt her Russian surname was too hard to pronounce, Anna chose the name Marly out of a telephone directory. When the Second World War hit France, Anna escaped to London. There, she met General Charles de Gaulle, the leader of the French government in exile.In 1941, Anna read an English newspaper account about the Battle of Smolensk, which stopped the German offensive on the Eastern Front in its tracks.Inspired by the story, she began to pick out a rhythmic tune about anti-Nazi partisans:We will go where the crow does not fly,And the beast cannot make a passage.No force nor person will make us retreat.When Anna sang her new song for a group of friends, French journalist Joseph Kessel exclaimed, This is what France needs!Chant des Partisans, broadcast on the BBC, became the rallying cry of the Resistance. Charles de Gaulle would later tell Marly, You turned your talent into a weapon for France.By the wars end, Anna Marly became a French star, writing 300 songs and performing for Allied troops across Europe. In 1969, Leonard Cohen recorded Anna Marlys song Le complainte du partisan (The Lament of the Partisan) as The Partisan.5. FilmIvan Mozzhukhin (center) as Michel Strogoff in Victor Tourjanskys 1926 French film. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom Cossacks to countesses, most migr actors and actresses ended up in Hollywood. Many also worked in the French film industry. While some became actors, others lined up as film extras, their faces memorialized in brief flashes of blinding light. Even novelist Vladimir Nabokov became a film extra, experiencing a sense of alienation working as an anonymous shadow in an electric night.One celebrated actor, Ivan Ilych Mozzhukhin, achieved fame in both France and America. He launched his career as a romantic star of the late Tsarist-era cinema.After the Revolution, Mozzhukhin wound up in France, where he worked as an actor, screenwriter, and director. He joined an artistic migr community in Paris led by Joseph Ermolieff and Aleksandr Kamenka, a Ukrainian-born director who founded Films Albatros. From an old Path studio in Montreuil, they went on to create some of the finest postwar French films.Mozzhukhin also collaborated with Russian filmmaker Lev Kuleshov. The filmmaker famously used the actors face to make an emotional montage of identical sequential shots known as the Kuleshov Effect. This film editing technique is still used today, notably in Game of Thrones.Ivan Mozzhukhin, the Russian Valentino. Source: LA Daily Mirror, courtesy of Mary Mallory; with Actress Olga Baklanova, who defected in 1924 and gained fame as the Russian Tigress, starred in American film Freaks and French films Le Beau Danube, Jeux denfants, and Les Cent Baisers. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFilms Albatros soon advanced in the cinema industry. During the 1920s-1930s, the studio produced almost 50 films. Mozzhukhin acted, wrote, and directed multiple screenplays.In 1921, he launched Child of the Carnival as his first French film credit. The next year, The House of Mystery appeared, followed by The Burning Crucible and Kean, where he played alongside his actress wife Natalya Lisenko. Mozzhukhin also played Michael Strogoff in the 1926 epic. When Rudolph Valentino died, Hollywood snapped up the tall actor with hypnotic eyes as the new Russian Valentino.In 1927, Mozzhukhin starred in the first talkie, The Jazz Singer. When his Hollywood career failed to take off, he returned to Europe. Like many migr stars, Mozzhukhins career declined when the transition from silent screen revealed his Russian accent and pigeonholed him into more limited roles.During his lifetime, Mozzhukhin starred in over 80 films.Still from the 1923 French film Le Brasier Ardent) starring Ivan Mozhukhin. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring the Silent Screen era, many migr filmmakers continued to use pre-revolutionary cinematic techniques such as the Russian Ending. In a changing postwar world, the demand for tragedy faded, and happy endings, or at least satisfying conclusions, became the norm. People wanted to laugh. They wanted to forget the war. The Russian Ending, infused with dark realism, did not fit a new generation looking for amusement.Some cinematographers struggled to adapt to changing tastes, which put tragic endings out of style. Others adapted by turning sad scenes into dreams. This allowed filmmakers to blend the Russian Ending with a happy dnouement that pleased audiences during the Roaring Twenties.These Russian films, infused with a French ambiance, inspired a new generation of directors. These included Jean Renoir, who decided to abandon his career in ceramics for the cinema after seeing Le Brasier Ardent. Renoir became known for enduring classics such as the great anti-war film La Grande Illusion.As migr filmmakers evolved with the times, the Russian Ending, along with the White Russian diaspora and its failed fight against the Soviets, faded into history.

New World and Old World are concepts still widely used to refer to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres, respectively, first adopted in European society after Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas in 1492. Sixteenth-century European cartographers consolidated the terms, influenced by Europes assumption of superiority over the indigenous communities it had discovered. While the terms were temporally inaccurate, they successfully framed the newly understood global landscape as a contrast between modernity and barbarism, justifying colonizationand its devastating effectsin the eyes of Europeans.Discovering the New WorldMartin Waldseemllers map of the world first mentioned America as separate from Asia in 1507. Source: Library of CongressChristopher Columbuss voyages between 1492 and 1502 initiated an interchange of stories and imaginaries about people, events, and landscapes between Europe and what is known today as America. However, it was Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci who first recognized the presence of an entire continent completely unknown to Europeans, located between East Asia and Europe. He traveled to South America several times, and in 1503, sent a letter to Lorenzo Pietro di Medici referring to his discoveries using the term Mundus Novus (New World) for the first time. His letters were reproduced and spread across Europe, accompanied by the earliest cartographical representations of the American lands.These letters completely changed how Europeans perceived and imagined the world. It became widely accepted that these lands should be named after the Italian explorer, especially after German cartographer Martin Waldeemller used the word America in his updated maps featuring the American continent, recognizing Vespuccis explorations.Was the New World Really New?A digital reconstruction of the Mesoamerican city of Tenochtitlan by Thomas Kole, 2023. Source: A Portrait of TenochtitlanWhen Columbus arrived in the Americas through the Bahamas, he thought the lands he had stumbled upon were connected with the Eastern part of India, which led him to call the local people Indios. Thereafter, Europeans referred to the newly discovered Caribbean region as the West Indies. This misleading perception of the world changed after Vespucci realized these territories were an entirely different land, unknown to Europeans.Neither Columbus nor Vespucci discovered a pristine land filled with what Europe believed were uncivilized savagesthey didnt discover anything at all. Instead, they encountered lands that had been occupied for millennia by great civilizations and various smaller indigenous communities dating back to at least the mid-6th millennium BCE.To appreciate how not new this so-called New World was, it is helpful to consider when the American continent was first populated. The earliest ancestors of indigenous communities in America were called the Paleo-Indians, the first people who entered the continent through a landed path in the Bering Strait between what is now Alaska and Russia during the final glacial period of the Late Pleistocene (12,9000-17,700 BCE). It would be more accurate to credit these Paleo-Indians as the people who discovered the continent for the first time.Depiction of Paleo-Indians in North Dakota by the State Historical Society of North Dakota. Source: North Dakota StudiesPaleo-Indians spread southward over the continent during the Archaic stage (8000-1000 BCE), leading to the development of the first sedentary and agriculture-based societies in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The earliest cradle of civilization in the Americas was found on the coast of Peru and was called the Caral-Supe. This civilization flourished between 3500 and 1800 BCE and was as old as the Egyptians. After their decline, the so-called pre-Columbian civilizations developed in Mesoamerica and the Andean Cordillera. These included, among others, the Inca in Peru, the Muisca and Tairona in Colombia, the Huetar in Costa Rica, the Tanos in the Caribbean, and the Olmecs, Mayas, Toltecs, Mixtecs, and Aztecs in Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize.Reframing current conceptions of the New World and the Old World is, fundamentally, a matter of temporal perspective. The Olmecs in Mesoamerica developed between 2000-900 BCE and were older than the Ancient Greeks (1200 BCE600 CE). The city of Teotihuacan (250 CE650 CE), in what is now Mexico City, was contemporary to Imperial Rome (31 BC476 CE). Just before the arrival of the Spanish, the Aztec and Inca Empires were contemporary to the Holy Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, and the Ottomans.The New World After 1492Print Nova Reperta, Amerigo Vespucci rediscovers America by Theodore Galle, c. 1600. Source: Royal Museums GreenwichBefore Columbuss arrival, the American continent was populated by up to 112 million people. Spanish colonization of the continent brought intense sociocultural and biological pressures that caused this number to drop to less than 5 million by 1650. These pressures include the forced introduction of European social and political structures in favor of colonial expansion, the spread of Catholicism to evangelize and civilize the indigenous communities, and, most importantly, the introduction of several viral and bacterial diseases for which native people were not prepared immunologically.The evidence today shows that, far from being a scarcely populated land, wild and pristine, as it was thought of in Europe, the American continent had been shaped and structured by local indigenous communities and civilizations. However, because of the deadly consequences of colonialism in America, local societies fell and disappeared. According to one scholar, human presence in the Americas was actually less visible in 1750 than in 1492.The Geopolitical Implications of New vs Old LandsPtolemys world map, c. 150. Source: Wikimedia Commons.Over the last centuries, modern sciences have organized the world through dichotomies that have shaped how countries and nations see each other: the North and the South, the West and the East, the First and Third World, the New and the Old. These terms, far from reflecting the world objectively, have strong political implications driven by economic, social, or political interests often exercised by dominant societies over subaltern ones.The distinction between the New and Old Worlds was no exception. This concept significantly defined European beliefs regarding the communities living outside the continent as well as their own societies. The assumption of Europes ethnic and social superiority was present from the very beginning in Columbuss letters, where he described Indians as peaceful, nave tribes, technologically and culturally inferior, and suggested that Spain would need to make them Christians to serve the crown.Painting The Landing of Columbus by Albert Bierstadt, 1893. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLater, during the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment resulted in many new intellectual, scientific, social, and political ideas that shaped novel Europes understanding of the world. In her recent article The New World Debate and the 18th-Century Images of America that Brought Europe Together, researcher Catherine Dossin from Purdue University studied how, during this time, Europe experienced an increase in knowledge development while simultaneously dealing with the question of America. She studied how the 18th-century paradigm of Europe was built upon a self-referential confrontation with the newly discovered continent. In simpler terms, Europe defined itself by what it was not in comparison with foreign lands and peoples.Moreover, Dossin notes that the publication of Comte de Buffons Histoire Naturelle (1749-1804) proposed the idea of Americas biological inferiority compared to Europe as a scientific truth. In addition, she highlights some other works that influenced the image of Europe in contrast with America: Rameaus opera-ballet Les Indes Gallantes (1735), Voltaires play Alzire et les Amricains, and De Pauws pamphlet Recherches philosophiques sur les Amricains (1768).Femme Sauvage et un Sauvage, costumes for Les Indes Galantes by Louis-Ren Boquet, 18th century. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceThese works helped to spread the assumption that the progress of European civilization was the path these newly discovered so-called savage societies should follow, reinforcing the belief that American indigenous communities were barbarians who needed Europes guidance and control. These stereotypes were accompanied by processes of othering, symbolic exclusion, fetishization, and reductionism.Moreover, the earliest representations and narratives of the Americas in Europe served to develop a Eurocentric view of the world through what Dossin calls a paternalistic, usually benevolent but always contemptuous relation to America, which would bring cultural and political legitimacy to colonial expansion and colonialism as an essential, yet uncomfortable, dimensions of Europes modern identity.Without a doubt, these were core ideas that made colonization legitimate in the eyes of many living in Europe and the reason Catholicism was viewed as one of the best tools to convert what was left of the indigenous population to a new set of moral values that would align with the civilized European world. The presumption of American inferiority and the need for control was used to exercise power over not only indigenous people but also their lands, making them available for colonial expansion, intensive looting, and exploitation.Decolonizing Modern Discourse: Reconsidering New vs OldWorld map by Robert Laurie and James White, 1812. Source: Kroll Antique MapsThe decolonial perspective in current social discourse has long insisted on evaluating how many Eurocentric concepts still exist in the discourses and practices of both academia and everyday life today. Reconsidering the use of terms such as New World and Old World implies that modern humans are conscious of the colonial legacy they reproduce. Discontinuing the use of these terms is another stepping stone in critically reviewing what has long been taught about the worlds geography and history and, most importantly, revealing the hurtful conditions under which Europes colonial powers diminished the contributions of the societies that had been existing and developing for millennia in the not new part of the world.Bibliography:Denevan, W. M. (Ed.). (1992). The native population of the Americas in 1492. Univ of Wisconsin Press.Denevan, W. M. (1992). The pristine myth: the landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 82(3), 369-385.Hall, S., (ed.), (1997), Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. SAGE Publications & Open University, London.Stankovi, A. K. (2021). Visual representations of Native Americans in colonial America. Facta Universitatis, Series: Visual Arts and Music, 075-085.

The Industrial Revolution refers to past changes from agrarian and manual labor systems of production to mechanization. Britain was the first nation in the world to experience the transformation which started in the 18th century. The trend then spread to other nations around the world. The historian Arnold Toynbee popularized the term after he used it extensively in his lectures compiled in the book Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England. The book was published posthumously in 1884. Today, the term is used to refer to the major historical industrialization changes that occurred following the introduction of mechanized production processes in different countries. In regions such as India and China, rapid developments did not begin until the 20th century, while in regions such as Western Europe and the United States, the changes had begun by the late 19th century.How Did the Industrial Revolution Take Shape in China?Qing expansion and conquest of the MingUnlike the industrial revolution in Great Britain, which was one continuous process, the industrial revolution in China was rather a series of phases. The first industrialization attempts in China began in the 1860s following the humiliation of the Qing Dynasty in the Opium Wars (1839 to 1842). The wars exposed the nations military and industrial inferiority. After the wars, Qing leaders resolved to boost the countrys economy and military with an aim to resist future invasions.A collective of industrialization projects were started after some Qing leaders raised concerns about the nations poor use of its own natural resources. Feng Guifen, one of the leaders of the Self-Strengthening Movement observed that western countries were more proficient at drawing and utilizing resources from China than the nation itself. To overcome the problem, he suggested that authorities strengthen China by improving its technical efficiency. This was with an aim to improve the use of the nations raw materials and prevent domination by western powers.Steam train pulling out of a station, Canton, China 1910Soon, some Qing leaders started to create enterprises involved in the transport and manufacturing industries. They also brought in machinery from overseas powered by steam to increase efficiency. At the time, steam engines were able to transform the railroad transport sector.Soon, Chinese elites bought and utilized machines for a wide range of tasks ranging from the spinning and weaving of fabrics to manufacturing. And from then on, the concept of using machinery to optimize the utilization of Chinas natural materials continued to influence economic changes in the country.That said, industrialization at scale in China didnt begin until much later. In fact, it is widely considered to have accelerated significantly following Chinas economic reforms of 1978. The reforms led to the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) which in turn ramped up local manufacturing.How Did the Industrial Revolution Emerge in Japan?Portrait of the Emperor Meiji.The Industrial Revolution in Japan began around 1870 after the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Among the most distinctive elements of Japans industrialization were its powerful military and the rise of a different social order. They played a significant role in the countrys industrialization following the enactment of the Meiji Constitution in 1889, which assigned ultimate authority to the Emperor. The constitution introduced a mandatory education and draft system, and strengthened nascent industries by encouraging the importation of manufacturing technologies from advanced Western nations.The growth of vast maritime transport and railway systems followed. The systems helped to interconnect domestic markets. The robust banking and transport network further accelerated the progress of industries such as the mining and textile industries.Emperor Meiji and his consort in the Plum Garden, by Kobayashi Kiyochika,1887. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFollowing the onset of World War I, Japanese industries experienced a phase of increased manufacturing output due to an increase in demand for military equipment. Some of the sectors that benefited the most included those involved in weapons manufacturing, communication, finance, and metallurgy.The industrial revolution as well as military strength helped Japan to create a colonial dominion by 1940 that included Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan. The economic system was resilient enough to resist Western forces for a long time and project its influence in regions such as northern China, Indonesia, and the Philippines.When Was the Industrial Revolution in India?An early railway tram used to transport sugar in IndiaThroughout the Industrial Revolution period in Europe, which was between 1760 and the 1880s, some regions of India were under the control of the East India Company. That said, the Industrial Revolution in the country began in the early 1800s and was spurred by the development of the first railways in the country in 1853. Subsequently in 1854, the first steam-run cotton factory in the country was started in Bombay. The installation had a domino effect that led to the technological advancement of cotton factories in the Asian nation throughout the 1870s and 80s.It is important to note that throughout this period, India was under colonial rule. At the same time, it was a period of deindustrialization as the British government largely reduced India to a raw material production country while simultaneously flooding the Indian market with cheap British manufactured goods. The strategy deliberately stymied local manufacturing.It was only after it gained its independence in 1947 that India started to implement robust industrialization regulations.

Spains past is layered with conquest, coexistence, and creativity. From the ancient Iberians and Roman rule to Islamic dynasties and the Catholic Monarchs, each era left behind enduring landmarks that speak to shifting powers and cultural fusion. Visitors today dont just come for beaches or cuisine. They come to walk through centuries of architecture, faith, and empire. Whether its Paleolithic cave art or Moorish palaces, Roman aqueducts or Gothic cathedrals, Spains historical fabric is visible, tactile, and unforgettable. Here are ten must-see historic sites across the country, each one offering a different chapter in the story of Spain.1. The Alhambra, GranadaDawn at the Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched atop Granadas Sabika Hill, the Alhambra stands as a testament to centuries of cultural fusion and architectural brilliance. Initiated in 1238 by Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar, founder of the Nasrid dynasty, this palatial fortress evolved into a self-contained city, complete with palaces, mosques, and gardens. Its name, derived from the Arabic al-Qala al-Hamra (The Red Castle), reflects the hue of its sun-kissed walls.Visitors are captivated by the intricate stucco work, arabesque motifs, and serene courtyards of the Nasrid Palaces, notably the Court of the Lions with its iconic fountain supported by twelve marble lions. The Alcazaba, the oldest part, offers panoramic views of Granada, while the Generalife gardens, once the sultans summer retreat, enchant with their lush vegetation and reflective pools.After the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the Alhambra became the royal court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where Christopher Columbus received endorsement for his voyage. Despite periods of neglect, restoration efforts have preserved its splendor, earning it UNESCO World Heritage status in 1984. Today, the Alhambra remains a symbol of Spains diverse heritage and a must-visit for history and art enthusiasts.2. Sagrada Famlia, BarcelonaSagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain. Source: FlickrThe Baslica de la Sagrada Famlia in Barcelona is one of the most iconic architectural landmarks in Europe. Construction began in 1882 under Francisco de Paula del Villar, but it was Antoni Gaud who redefined its vision, dedicating over 40 years of his life to the project. Blending Gothic and Art Nouveau styles with organic forms inspired by nature, the basilica remains under construction, with completion projected for the coming decades.Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Sagrada Famlia features 18 spires representing the apostles, evangelists, the Virgin Mary, and Jesus Christ. Visitors are drawn to its three grand faades, Nativity, Passion, and Glory, each portraying elements of Christian theology in elaborate detail. Inside, towering columns branch like trees, supporting a ceiling designed to mimic a forest canopy.The on-site museum offers insight into Gauds methods, and elevators allow access to the towers for panoramic views of Barcelona. The Sagrada Famlia continues to function both as a place of worship and a symbol of architectural ambition.3. Mezquita-Catedral, CrdobaMezquita de Cordoba, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFew monuments in Europe illustrate cultural transition quite like the Mezquita-Catedral of Crdoba. Originally conceived during the height of Islamic rule in Spain, the site functioned as a mosque for nearly five centuries before its conversion into a Christian cathedral in the 13th century. Rather than demolish the original structure, Christian rulers built within it, preserving the mosques architectural integrity while embedding their own religious and artistic symbols.This creates an unusual spatial experience: Roman columns recycled for Islamic arches, leading to a Gothic nave crowned by a Renaissance dome. The iconic red-and-white striped arches form an endless forest of stone, giving visitors a glimpse into the sophistication of Umayyad architecture.Located in the heart of Crdobas historic center, the building is not just a museum but an active cathedral.4. El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El EscorialMonastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Madrid, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEl Escorial was not simply built to impress. It was designed to embody an empires ideology. Commissioned by King Philip II in the late 16th century, this massive complex served multiple roles: royal palace, monastery, basilica, library, school, and royal mausoleum. Its creation marked Spains response to the Protestant Reformation, intended as a statement of Catholic power, discipline, and order.Located in the Sierra de Guadarrama, about 45 kilometers from Madrid, El Escorials architecture is severe and geometric, reflecting Philip IIs austere personality and his preference for sobriety over ornamentation. The layout is vast and symmetrical, symbolizing the divine order he believed the monarchy upheld.Key highlights include the Royal Pantheon, where nearly every Spanish monarch since Charles I is buried; the richly decorated basilica with its impressive dome; and the library, known for its rare manuscripts and ceiling frescoes.5. Roman Aqueduct, SegoviaAqueduct of Segovia and Plaza de la Artillera, Segovia, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Roman Aqueduct of Segovia is one of the most exceptional and best-preserved pieces of ancient Roman engineering in the Iberian Peninsula. Built around the 1st century AD, likely during Emperor Domitians reign, the structure transported water from the Fro River across more than 15 kilometers to the city center, without the use of mortar.The aqueducts most iconic section spans Segovias Plaza del Azoguejo, where 167 granite arches soar up to nearly 29 meters high. Each block was precisely cut and balanced, relying solely on gravity and masterful alignment. Two millennia later, it still stands, a testament to Roman precision and ingenuity.Beyond its function, the aqueduct became a symbol of civic pride. It remained in use until the 19th century and continues to define Segovias historic landscape today. Visitors can walk alongside its elevated course, view it illuminated at night, or explore nearby interpretive centers that place this UNESCO-listed monument in the broader context of Roman Spain.6. Alczar of Segovia, SegoviaAutumn panoramic view of the Alczar of Segovia, Segovia, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched atop a rocky crag at the confluence of the Eresma and Clamores rivers, the Alczar of Segovia commands the landscape with its ship-like silhouette. Originally a Roman fort, it evolved into a royal palace under Alfonso VIII in the 12th century, later serving as a state prison and the Royal Artillery School. Its distinctive slate spires, added during Philip IIs reign, reflect European architectural influences.Inside, visitors can explore richly decorated rooms like the Hall of the Kings and the Throne Room, adorned with Mudejar-style ceilings and portraits of Castilian monarchs. The Tower of John II offers panoramic views after ascending its 152-step spiral staircase. The Alczars cinematic allure inspired Walt Disneys Cinderella Castle and has featured in films like Chimes at Midnight.Today, it functions as a museum and military archive, welcoming over 700,000 visitors annually. Recent enhancements include AI-integrated security systems and exclusive nighttime tours revealing previously inaccessible areas.7. Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, GaliciaSantiago de Compostela Cathedral, Galicia, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, located in Galicia, Spain, stands as a monumental testament to centuries of faith, art, and history. Construction commenced in 1075 under the reign of Alfonso VI, with the cathedral being consecrated in 1211. Over the years, it has evolved architecturally, incorporating Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque, and Neoclassical elements, reflecting the diverse influences that have shaped its structure.Central to the cathedrals significance is the tomb of Saint James the Great, one of Jesus Christs apostles. According to tradition, his remains were discovered in the 9th century by the hermit Pelagius, guided by mysterious lights in the night sky. This discovery transformed the site into a major pilgrimage destination, marking the culmination of the Camino de Santiago, a route that has drawn pilgrims from across Europe for over a millennium.Visitors to the cathedral can marvel at the Prtico da Gloria, a Romanesque masterpiece sculpted by Master Mateo in the 12th century, depicting a rich array of biblical scenes. Another highlight is the Botafumeiro, a massive thurible that swings across the nave during special liturgical ceremonies, reaching speeds of up to 60 km/h.The cathedrals western faade, known as the Obradoiro, showcases Baroque artistry and serves as a grand entrance from the Plaza del Obradoiro. Inside, the crypt beneath the main altar houses the silver reliquary believed to contain the remains of Saint James, offering a place of reflection for pilgrims and visitors alike.8. Toledos Historic Center, ToledoView of Old Town Toledo, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsToledos historic center is a living tapestry of civilizations, where Roman, Visigothic, Islamic, Jewish, and Christian legacies intertwine. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986, the city showcases over two millennia of cultural and architectural evolution.Visitors can explore the Gothic Primatial Cathedral of Saint Mary, renowned for its intricate architecture and art collections. The Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, commissioned by the Catholic Monarchs, exemplifies Isabelline Gothic style. The Alczar of Toledo, perched atop the city, has served various roles, from a Roman palace to a military academy.The citys layout, with its narrow, winding streets, reflects its medieval past, inviting visitors to discover hidden plazas, ancient synagogues, and mosques. Notably, the Mosque of Cristo de la Luz stands as a testament to Toledos Islamic heritage. Bridges like the Puente de San Martn offer panoramic views and connect the citys rich past with its present.9. Altamira Cave, CantabriaCave paintings of Altamira Cave, Cantabria, Spain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Cave of Altamira, situated near Santillana del Mar in Cantabria, Spain, is renowned for its exceptional Upper Paleolithic cave paintings. Discovered in 1868, the cave gained prominence in 1879 when amateur archaeologist Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola and his daughter Mara identified the vivid polychrome depictions of bison, horses, and other fauna adorning its ceilings. These artworks, dating back approximately 36,000 to 13,000 years, were initially met with skepticism but later recognized as authentic, marking a significant milestone in the study of prehistoric art.To preserve these delicate paintings, the original cave has been closed to the general public. However, the nearby National Museum and Research Center of Altamira offers visitors access to the Neocave, a meticulously crafted replica that faithfully reproduces the caves art and environment. This facility provides an immersive experience, allowing visitors to appreciate the artistry and significance of the site without compromising its preservation.Altamiras significance extends beyond its artistic achievements; it offers invaluable insights into the cognitive and cultural development of early Homo sapiens in Europe. The caves art exemplifies the sophistication of prehistoric symbolic expression, contributing to our understanding of human history.Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, Altamira continues to be a focal point for research and education, underscoring the enduring legacy of our prehistoric ancestors.10. Ruins of Empries, CataloniaRuins of Empries, Catalonia, Spain. Source: FlickrAlong Catalonias rugged coast lies one of the few places in the Iberian Peninsula where visitors can walk through both ancient Greek and Roman city remains in a single site. The Ruins of Empries tell a story of layered civilizations, trade, and empire-building, beginning with Greek merchants from Phocaea who arrived around 575 BCE and founded a bustling coastal hub they called Emporion.Centuries later, in 218 BCE, Roman legions landed nearby during the Second Punic War, building their own settlement beside the Greek one. Over time, the two cities coexisted, eventually merging into a thriving Roman municipality. Today, stone-paved streets, mosaic-floored houses, public baths, and a majestic forum remain.The sites museum showcases statues, pottery, and everyday objects, highlighted by the revered figure of Asclepius, god of healing. Few archaeological sites in Spain feel this open, this real. Set beside the Mediterranean, Empries offers more than ruins. It offers a rare, tangible sense of time passing through place.

Regardless of political affiliation, voters should be able to agree that the last few elections have been chaotic, if only from the wild media coverage. With the exception of the most recent election,