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Maximilien Robespierre is a complex historical figure associated with the French Revolutions Reign of Terror.Although he took a leading role in France, making decisions that resulted in the Reign of Terror that culminated in the execution of tens of thousands, Robespierre was also an enlightened figure known for his progressive views.Reconciling these aspects in a single human being demands great interrogation and understanding of who Robespierre actually was, what he stood for, and what he believed.Maximilien Robespierres Early LifeHistorical transport in Arras in northern France. Source: Encyclopaedia BritannicaBorn on May 6, 1758 in Arras in northern France, Maximilien Franois Marie Isidore de Robespierre was the eldest of four children born to a barrister, Franois Maximilien Barthlmy de Robespierre, and the daughter of a brewer, Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault.He had two sisters, Charlotte and Henriette, and a younger brother, Augustin. His mother died on July 16, 1764 while in labor. The birth was stillborn. Maximilien had a close emotional bond with his mother, and according to the writings of Charlotte, he could not think of her without tears in his eyes. Around three years later, Maximiliens father left for reasons unknown and placed the care of his children in the hands of relatives. Maximilien and Augustin were thereafter raised by their mothers parents.At an early age, Maximilien showed an aptitude for academic pursuits. At the age of eight, he was enrolled in Arras College, and at the age of just 11, he secured a scholarship to study at the renowned Collge Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Here, he was influenced by the works of Jacques Rousseau and showed significant interest in the ideologies of the Roman Republic.A Career in LawOpening of the Estates-General on May 5, 1789 by Stanislas Helman and Charles Monnet. Source: Creative Commons, Store Norske LeksikonRobespierre studied law at the Sorbonne and graduated in 1780, after which he was admitted to the bar. His academic brilliance had earned him a decent reputation, and in 1782, he was appointed as one of five judges in a local criminal court.He resigned from this post due to an ethical dilemma adjudicating capital crimes. During this time, Robespierre was vehemently against the death penalty. He opened a private practice and became known for representing the rights of poor people.He earned a reputation for living an ascetic lifestyle with little interest in indulging in food and drink. However, he dressed well and always took great care with his appearance. Even during the revolution, when French politicians adopted a more relaxed look, Robespierre stuck to his powdered wigs, tailored clothes, and stockings. According to his sister, Charlotte, her brother was a deeply reserved person.In November 1783, Robespierre was admitted to the literary Arras Academy, where he penned works attacking Frances absolutist monarchy and arbitrary justice. Given his social standing, this penchant for altruism alarmed the privileged classes, who began to view Robespierre as a threat.Robespierre Moves Into PoliticsLiberty Leading the People by Eugne Delacroix, 1830. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobespierre quickly garnered support from the poorer classes. In 1789, the citizens of Arras chose him to be a representative in the Estates-General, the General Assembly, which had last been called in 1614. He was the fifth of eight deputies from the region of Artois. Thus, Robespierre began a political career at the age of 30.Reluctant to call the assembly, King Louis XVI finally decided it was necessary to address Frances huge financial woes, which had resulted from France investing vast sums of money into supporting the Americans and defeating the British during the American War of Independence.The winds of change, however, were blowing strong throughout France, and the anti-monarchist sentiment that had been growing significantly since 1787 turned into a revolution.On June 6, Robespierre delivered his first speech in the Estates-General. He attacked the hierarchical structure of the Church and drew widespread commentary from both sides of the ideological divide. He was noted as being eloquent but was soft-spoken. He was not imposing in any sense, and he had facial tics. Nevertheless, Robespierres words were received in quantity and fell on the ears of many who agreed with his sentiments. He would align himself with a large body of politicians calling themselves the National Assembly, which claimed to represent 96% of Frances population.Louis XVI, King of France and Navarre, wearing his grand royal costume in 1779 by Antoine-Franois Callet. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNaturally, the king feared the power of the National Assembly, which wanted to reform the government and create a constitution. Louis tried to sabotage the National Assembly and stop its members from meeting.On July 14, 1789, unrest in the capital had reached a point where it could no longer be contained. French citizens wanted change and took up arms against the monarchy. The storming of the Bastille and the Htel des Invalides in support of the National Constituent Assembly (formerly the National Assembly) is considered the start of the French Revolution. Paris was in the hands of the revolutionaries, and the king became a de facto prisoner.The monarchy, however, was not disbanded, and King Louis XVI remained king while the National Constituent Assembly ran the country and debated on what to do with the king.Rise to PowerPortrait of Robespierre by an unknown artist. Source: Den Store Danske via Muse Carnavalet, ParisRobespierre was a prolific orator who gave nearly one thousand speeches in the span of just five years. However, these speeches did not always go over well with many of his peers. He was seen as too radical and prevented from achieving significant executive power.The distrust of his peers mattered little to him, however. His speeches to the gallery earned him huge respect from the crowds of commoners who came to listen. It was this dynamic that took Robespierre to the heights of French revolutionary governance.Robespierre also gained friends and allies as a member of the Jacobin Club, a political society of revolutionaries that discussed events and agendas. He was dedicated to universal suffrage, and on March 31, 1790, Robespierre was elected president of this club.The Jacobin club had received its name as a result of its meetings being held in a former convent run by the Dominicans, whom Parisians referred to as Jacobins. Hugely popular, the Jacobin Club swelled in numbers, achieving an estimated total of half a million members and 7,000 chapters throughout France.Around this time, according to his sister Charlotte, Robespierre began courting Eleanore Duplay, a cabinetmakers daughter. Robespierre was lodging at their house at the time. He had had other love interests before but never married. He would remain so, as for him, political life took over any attempt at being a husband and a father.Seal of the Jacobin Club from 1792 to 1794. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn December, Robespierre coined the term Libert, galit, fraternit (liberty, equality, fraternity), which serves as Frances motto today.Throughout 1791 and 1792, Robespierre continued campaigning for the equality of all French people, including those of color. Before the Constituent Assembly was dissolved and a new Legislative Assembly was formed, Robespierre was a key figure in drafting a law that prohibited deputies of the former from becoming members of the latter.This was done in order to end the ambitions of old members trying to reform France into a constitutional monarchy. The move also prevented Robespierre from taking a seat in the new government. This move furthered Robespierres reputation as being selfless and incorruptible.The Fate of Louis XVIReturn to Varennes by Jean Duplessis-Bertaux and Jean-Louis Prieur. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe king was well aware of the danger he was in. France was becoming increasingly radicalized against the monarchy, and he was powerless to stop it. Fearing the worst, he, along with his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, and their children, attempted to flee Paris on the night of June 21/22.The Flight to Varennes, as it became known, was a failure. He and his family were arrested and returned to Paris. Their situation became even more dire as the king had earned the distrust of many powerful men controlling France.Within the Jacobin Club, the revolutionary movement split, with two powerful factions waging a battle of words for their respective ideologies. On one side were those who wanted to establish a constitutional monarchy, preserving the king but limiting his power, which had been absolute. Those who supported this idea took their cues from the dynamic in England whereby the kings authority had been curtailed. On the other side were those who wanted to do away with the monarchy and establish a republic in its place.With the kings attempted flight and arrest, the latter ideology became far more powerful as it gained new adherents. Robespierre made his own position clear: he was not in favor of completely deposing the monarch but severely limiting his power, claiming that France was both a republic and a monarchy.Marie Antoinette, Queen of France by Jean-Baptiste-Isabey, 1783. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAfter a new constitution was accepted, which the king was forced to sign, European powers became increasingly wary of Frances revolutionary fervor spreading to their own countries. Several states decided to take action against the rising surge of these ideas and threatened to invade France if King Louis was harmed.On August 27, 1791, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring concern for the French monarchy and threatening vague but severe consequences for the French revolutionaries.In April of the following year, the Assembly responded by voting to declare war on Austria. However, the Revolution had sapped the strength of the French military, which was completely disorganized. In response, an alliance of states prepared to invade France.Leading this alliance of Austrians, Prussians, and French migrs was Charles William Ferdinand, the Duke of Brunswick, who issued the Brunswick Manifesto, warning of dire consequences for any Frenchman who opposed the alliances forces.The campaign, however, went poorly for the alliance, and the war dragged on. Meanwhile, Louis XVI was put on trial. Although Robespierre was against capital punishment, he argued in favor of executing the monarch, stating that Louis must die that the country may live.On January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was sent to the guillotine. On October 16, his wife, Marie Antoinette, received the same fate.Taking the Reins of PowerVive La Montagne by tienne Bricourt. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite the Revolutions successes and Louis XVIs death, France still had a significant number of powerful royalists. The French government was under the control of a political group called the Girondins, who had campaigned for the end of the monarchy but also sought to limit the Revolutions spiraling momentum. Under their rule, France was also suffering foreign invasions and royalist uprisings.Between the end of May and the beginning of June 1793, Robespierre expelled the Girondists from the government with support from the Commune of Paris. Robespierre was subsequently elected as one of the 12 members of the Committee of Public Safety within the National Convention, the latest incarnation of the assembly governing France.Robespierre was the most powerful representative of the faction known as the Montagnards (the Mountainists), who sat on the upper benches of the National Convention. They were more left-leaning and more radical than the Girondins whom they replaced.Following the Girondins expulsion, the Montagnards took power and began a series of violent reprisals known as the Reign of Terror.The Reign of TerrorJaques Ren Hbert by Edme Bovinet after Franois Bonneville. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWith France in turmoil, Robespierre, with the committees support, pursued a hardline course of action. Those who did not support the Revolution were purged all over France. The Reign of Terror had begun, and Robespierre, as head of the Committee of Public Safety, exercised near-dictatorial control of the government.Devoted to his interpretation of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus philosophy, Robespierre forced the National Convention to proclaim The Cult of the Supreme Being as the official religion of France. This was in accordance with Rousseaus theory of Deism, which rejected traditional Christian mores and argued in favor of rational morality. As such, the Catholic Church was stripped of its authority, and priests became targeted as enemies of the Revolution.The latter half of 1793 and the first half of 1794 were a time of great bloodletting in France as the revolutionary government secured its position. Even revolutionary leaders werent safe. Jacques Ren Hbert was a radical leader of the Hbertist sect within the government. He attacked those who he thought were too moderate, including Robespierre. Ironically, the government moved against Hbert, and he was put on trial and executed.Executions in 1793. Source: Paris MusesThe same fate befell Georges Jacques Danton, who had been a prominent leader in overthrowing the monarchy. He was accused of having royal inclinations and of being engaged in conspiracy against the government, as well as venality, before being executed.Tribunals were set up to try the thousands of people accused of being against the revolution. Officially, 16,594 people were executed after trial, while another 10,000 died in prison. Tens of thousands of others were killed in massacres across the country.Trials were quick and did not allow witnesses. They were ultimately nothing more than announcements of death sentences.It is estimated that between September 1793 and July 1794, around 30,000 to 50,000 people were killed.Robespierres Downfall & DeathRobespierre going to the guillotine by Alfred Mouillard, 1884. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobespierres actions did not endear him to many within the government. Fearing for their own lives if the situation continued, a conspiracy began to take shape as powerful government members joined together to overthrow their rogue colleague.At this time, Robespierre was also losing the support of the people who had expected their lives to improve under his reign. Despite French victories against enemies in the rest of Europe, France was still in turmoil, and the lot of the commoners had not improved.His base of support evaporated as the right regarded him as a failed dictator, and the left viewed him as being too moderate.On July 27, 1794, Robespierres enemies took the opportunity to bar him from speaking at the National Convention. They detained him and took him to Luxembourg prison in Paris where he found support from the warden who refused to imprison him.Along with soldiers loyal to the Commune of Paris, Robespierre made his way to the Htel de Ville. After refusing to lead an insurrection, his armed supporters began to disperse.The death mask of Maximilien Robespierre. Source: Princeton UniversityWhen the National Convention learned that Robespierre had not been arrested, its members declared Robespierre an outlaw, and armed forces were sent to capture him. They entered the hotel, and fighting broke out. It is unclear exactly how Robespierre received a gunshot wound to his face. In one version of the account, he tried to commit suicide, while in another version, he was shot by an officer named Charles-Andr Meda. Whichever version of the events is true, Robespierre was taken into custody with a shattered jaw. His associates with him at the time were also taken into custody.In the early hours of the morning of July 28, Robespierre was sentenced to death. He was taken to the scaffold, and his head was placed on the guillotine. The executioner ripped off the bandage that was holding his jaw in place, and Robespierre screamed until the blade descended and ended his life.In total, 102 people were executed for being complicit in Robespierres escape and defense.Robespierres LegacyPortrait of Robespierre by H. Lefvre. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRobespierre is a complex figure for historians. Although he opposed capital punishment, thousands died as a result of his ordinances. He seemed willing to tolerate this dynamic if it was necessary to defend his vision of an ideal society.From one perspective, he was a hero who led a revolutionary movement that gave power to the people of France, toppling the ancien rgime and ushering in a new era of equality. From another perspective, he was a tyrannical leader with the blood of thousands on his hands.Whatever the case, Robespierre certainly left his mark on history.

Also called the Devils Triangle, the Bermuda Triangle is an area of water in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean that is mythical for its many strange occurrences and disappearances. Whether or not the location has supernatural forces at play within its bounds is up for debate, but it is home to some of the most chilling stories in maritime history. This is the story of the Bermuda Triangle: its location, mysteries, and the ongoing research into the area today.Origins & Location of the Bermuda TriangleA map of the bounds of the Bermuda Triangle. Source: iStockThe bounds of the Bermuda Triangle are often agreed to extend from the southernmost Atlantic tip of Florida, the island of Bermuda, and San Juan, Puerto Rico. These boundaries, however, change depending on who tells the story. Some believe the border extends to the Chesapeake Bay, and a 1970s BBC program even claimed that some think the border extends to the Irish Coast.The location seems to depend on which incident the author is writing about. However, it is generally understood that the Bermuda Triangle encompasses between 500,000 and 1.5 million square miles of the Atlantic Ocean.The mystery continues with the timeline of when strange things began happening in the Bermuda Triangle. According to the reports of Christopher Columbus, as he sailed through the area, a great pillar of fire crashed into the sea there, and he claimed that a strange light shone in the distance during his passing. Columbus also added about the erratic compass reading he received, but this is perhaps because of the area in the Triangles bounds where, at that time, true north and magnetic north aligned.Act I, Scene 1 of The Tempest by William Shakespeare, in an engraving by Benjamin Smith based on a painting by George Romney, date unknown. Source: Picryl/Library of Congress, Washington DCShakespeare comes into the lore of the Bermuda Triangle as well. His play The Tempest is suggested to have been based on an actual shipwreck near the island of Bermuda in 1609, lending the area a well-forged reputation for mystery.Despite the stories going back to at least the 15th century, the Bermuda Triangle was not introduced as a concept into the public psyche until the mid-20th century. In 1950, Miami Herald journalist Edward Van Winkle Jones first wrote about the unusual disappearances that occurred in the Bermuda area. Joness piece was followed in 1952 by George Sands article in Fate magazine titled Sea Mystery at Our Back Door, in which he detailed the area where several planes and ships had gone missing since World War II.However, it wasnt until 1964 that the term Bermuda Triangle was coined by Vincent Gaddis, who wrote a piece called The Deadly Bermuda Triangle for Argosy magazine. In the article, Gaddis claimed that there was a pattern in the area of strange events and disappearances dating back to the mid-19th century.Gaddiss article and subsequent book, Invisible Horizons, kicked off a slew of investigations and research on the topic. The most famous of the several studies that followed was Charles Berlitzs The Bermuda Triangle, which became a bestseller and cemented the legend in the mind of the general public.Famous Mysteries From the Bermuda TriangleWreck of the HMS Vixen off the coast of Bermuda, photograph by David Broad, 2011. Source: PanoramioReportedly, at least 50 ships and 20 aircraft have gone missing in the Bermuda Triangle in the last 500 years. Most vanished without a trace, or in some cases, vessels were found without a crew. However, there are a few famous tales from the Triangle that are always included in its legend.According to Gaddis, the first record of a strange occurrence in the Bermuda Triangle goes back to 1840. The Rosalie, a French vessel en route to Havana, was found near the Triangle with her sails set and everything in place, but with only a canary aboard.The USS CyclopsCyclops USN, probably taken during the 1911 naval review in New York City. Source: Library of Congress, Washington DCThough the Rosalie is the first mystery claimed by the legend of the Bermuda Triangle, the most infamous shipwreck is that of the USS Cyclops. The 542-foot ship had been sailing since 1910, carrying coal between the Caribbean, Mexico, and the Baltic Sea.The ship was requisitioned for use in the Navy in 1917, when the United States entered World War I. The Cyclops carried troops and coal across the Atlantic. However, in March 1918, it set sail from Brazil loaded with a new cargo: over 10,000 tons of manganese ore.The ship stopped in Barbados to restock for the nine-day journey back to Baltimore with its 309 crew members. On the day it sailed out, the message from the Cyclops was Weather Fair, All Well. This would be the last message ever sent out from the ship, as it sank somewhere between Barbados and the Chesapeake Bay without so much as an SOS call.The USS Cyclops was never found, nor were any of the 309 crew members. The official Navy record of the event stated, The disappearance of this ship has been one of the most baffling mysteries in the annals of the Navy, all attempts to locate her having proved unsuccessful.Though there has been speculation ranging from German submarines to giant sea monsters, there is still no explanation for what happened to the Cyclops or her crew.Flight 19/MarinerFive US Navy Grumman TBF-1 Avengers, similar to the five planes lost over the Bermuda Triangle. Source: National Archives CatalogThe most infamous flight to disappear in the Bermuda Triangle is Flight 19 and the subsequent rescue aircraft, the Mariner. On December 5, 1945, at 2:10 p.m., five US Navy Avenger torpedo-bombers took off from Ft. Lauderdale Naval Air Station for a routine training mission. The total flight was to be 120 miles and should have only taken three hours.About two hours into the scheduled mission, the squadron leader radioed to the tower reporting that his compass and backup compass had failed. The squadron had been training in the area for over six months but had no idea where they were. The other planes also experienced such malfunctions.Several attempts on land were made to locate the squadron, along with several more confused and partial messages from the crew. However, at 6:20 p.m., the tower received its last distorted transmission from the squadron leader, seemingly calling for his men to prepare to ditch their planes at sea due to a lack of fuel.By the time of the last transmission, land radar stations were able to determine that Flight 19 was somewhere east of Florida and north of the Bahamas. At 7:27 p.m., a search-and-rescue Mariner airboat took off with a 13-man crew ready to find the missing flight. The Mariner reported that the mission was underway three minutes later, and was then never heard from again.A tanker off the coast of Florida reported an explosion seen at 7:50 p.m., but neither the Mariner nor the 14-man crew of Flight 19 were ever seen again. Official Navy records state that storms destroyed the evidence from the crashes, but the mystery has become synonymous with the legend of the Bermuda Triangle.Paranormal Powers at Work?UFOs flying over a beach, by Maxime Raynal, 2016. Source: FlickrMany people have theorized that the Bermuda Triangles strange occurrences must be caused by the paranormal. This has led to discussions about, among other things, the lost city of Atlantis, UFOs, and comets landing in the triangle.The most popular of these theories was developed and supported by American psychic Edgar Cayce. Cayces claim to fame was his connection with the lost city of Atlantis. He was able to supposedly answer questions and documented several readings about the lost city, claiming that the Bahamas Banks and the island of Bimini were the last vestiges of Atlantis.Particularly, Cayce believed the island of Bimini, which many consider to be a part of the Bermuda Triangle, contained a trail of crystals that once fueled Atlantis. This was supposedly the cause of electromagnetic interference with planes and boats, causing them to crash or disappear without a trace.In 1968, a series of stones in the form of a road was discovered near Bimini. Now called the Bimini Road, it was proof of Atlantiss existence for proponents of Cayces psychic abilities. Thus, it also supposedly confirmed the existence of paranormal forces working within the Bermuda Triangle. Geologists, however, have confirmed that the existence of the road is natural, explaining that it was formed as a result of erosion and the breaking up of larger beach rocks.The beach on Bimini Island, where Bimini Road is sunken off the coast, photograph by Matt Kieffer, 2005. Source: FlickrAnother paranormal explanation for the Bermuda Triangle is the existence of a parallel universe within it. This theory claims that within the area, a time and space warp is created, making ships, planes, and people disappear.Another explanation for this parallel universe is what is known as a Star Gate created by UFOs as a portal to other dimensions. This is most often used to explain the disappearance of Flight 19, as Lieutenant Taylor made a radio call saying, We are entering white water. Nothing seems right. We dont know where we are. The water is green, not white.The third paranormal theory for the phenomenon of the triangle is based on the electromagnetic properties of the area. Conspiracy theorists claim that a comet fell into the Bermuda Triangle around 11,000 years ago, which explains why navigational and electronic tools would malfunction or act strangely in the bounds of the triangle. The truth is that the Bermuda Triangle is a massive area of the ocean, and compass variances are natural within such large boundaries.Paranormal theories have become popular and will continue to be popular, as humans love to fantasize about the existence of a higher power that causes strange phenomena. However, this is likely not the case in the Bermuda Triangle, so what does actually cause the seemingly bizarre occurrences?The Truth About the Bermuda Triangle: Scientific HypothesesNOAA Ship PISCES silhouetted in the sunset. Source: Flickr/NOAA Photo LibraryThe truth about the Bermuda Triangle is that, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), disappearances and wrecks happen in this location with no greater frequency than in any other similarly sized area of the Atlantic Ocean. The US Navy, US Coast Guard, and the US Board of Geographic Names do not even recognize the boundaries or the existence of the Bermuda Triangle.While this official denial of its existence probably spurs on some conspiracy theorists, science provides evidence that proves these governmental bodies are probably correct. Most, if not all, of the strange happenings in the Bermuda Triangle can be explained by human error, violent weather, the Gulf Stream, and navigational challenges.Human error is one of the most cited explanations for the disappearance of ships and aircraft in the Bermuda Triangle. There is no limit to human stubbornness in the face of situations they are not prepared for, such as when the yacht Revonoc was sailed into a storm south of the Florida coast by its owner, Harvey Conover, in 1958. Panic when things go wrong also leads to human error, even in experienced sailors and pilots, causing a shipwreck or crash in already hard-to-navigate areas of the ocean.Data from the National Hurricane Center for the years 1851 to 2019 overlaid onto a satellite image of the world from NASA. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMost hurricanes and storms in the Atlantic also pass through the Bermuda Triangle. Before the invention of weather satellites, there was no way to warn a pilot or captain of the weather, and it would have seemingly come out of nowhere. One instance of a hurricane passing through the area was when Francisco de Bobadillas fleet sank in the triangle in 1502. Satellite imaging backs up the cases of suddenly dangerous weather, showing that most hurricanes in the Atlantic occurred near or passed through the Bermuda Triangles boundaries.The existence of the Gulf Stream or the Florida Current can provide a third explanation for the disappearance of vessels or their sudden changes in position. This ever-present surface current flows from the Gulf of Mexico through the Straits of Florida and into the Atlantic. It can carry objects within its flow, explaining why a plane or ship that is already having trouble can be carried away from its reportedly known position.An aerial view of Bermuda and the sea surrounding it. Source: NARA & DVIDS Public Domain Archive/The US National ArchivesIn the end, the Bermuda Triangle is not, scientifically speaking, unique in its number of disappearances and shipwrecks. The most likely explanation for the fame of the Bermuda Triangle is an exceptional case of marketing and a constant human interest in the mysterious or unexplained. The stories that made the Bermuda Triangle infamous latched onto the psyche of the public, as much of folklore does. While the Bermuda Triangle may not be a strange phenomenon scientifically, it has and will continue to provide chilling and fascinating tales for years to come.

The Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 was the armed manifestation of the doctrine of Manifest Destiny that encouraged American expansionism in the 19th century. While the conflict is undoubtedly eclipsed in historical memory by the American Civil War fought less than two decades later, the Mexican-American War transformed the map of the United States and altered the countrys relationship with its southern neighbor. Moreover, the conflict was the stage for the rise of influential political and military leaders who fought on both sides of the American Civil War.CausesPresident James K. Polk by Charles Fenderich, 1838. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionIn 1846, the Mexican-American War broke out following a series of territorial disputes fueled by American expansionism. Manifest Destiny, the idea that the United States was inherently fated to spread democracy and capitalism across North America, guided American political and military ambitions during the mid-19th century. Led by President James K. Polk, the United States sought to bring territory in modern-day Texas, California, and New Mexico under American control.One of the primary catalysts of the Mexican-American War were the disputes over the possession of Texas. In 1836, the Republic of Texas gained its independence from Mexico after a revolution driven by violent clashes including the 13-day siege of the Alamo. After achieving autonomy, most Texans favored rapid annexation into the United States. The formal takeover process, however, was slowed by American disagreements over the status of slavery in the new territory.By 1845, the Republic of Texas was annexed by the United States. This provoked a hostile reaction from Mexican political leaders, who continued to lay claim on the territory. Furthermore, the two parties disagreed about the boundaries of Texas. While the United States asserted the Rio Grande marked its southern border, Mexican authorities placed Texass boundary 100 miles to the north near the Nueces River. Before long, President Polk sent American troops to lay claim to the disputed territory.Failed Negotiations and Early ClashesGeneral Zachary Taylor by Jacques Reich, 1899-1920. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionBefore deploying soldiers near the disputed Mexico-Texas border, President Polk first attempted to advance American political goals through diplomatic methods. Sending American lawyer and future senator John Slidell as a special envoy to Mexico City, Polk planned to negotiate the purchase of California and New Mexico for $25 million. Mexico, however, was plagued by internal political instability and rejected the offer altogether by declining to meet with Slidell.On April 25, 1846, the Mexican-American War formally commenced when Mexican forces engaged US troops in the contested region between the Nueces and Rio Grande Rivers. After successfully provoking a military response from Mexico, Polk secured a formal declaration of war from Congress less than three weeks later on May 13.The first significant engagement of the Mexican-American War, the Battle of Palo Alto, occurred on May 8, 1846. There, future president General Zachary Taylor led American troops against General Mariano Aristas Mexican forces. Despite being outnumbered by nearly 1,400 soldiers, the Taylor achieved a major victory by exploiting strategic advantages in its mobile light artillery, boosting morale for the battles to come.Other Major BattlesJohn E. Wool on horseback by Ehrgott & Forbriger Lithography Company, 1862-1864. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionThe Mexican-American War witnessed further major engagements in 1847. In February, Generals Zachary Taylor and John E. Wool led United States troops in the Battle of Buena Vista against General Antonio Lpez de Santa Annas forces. In the face of an overwhelming Mexican force, Taylor and Wood deployed their forces at a narrow pass, concentrating their artillery towards the enemys pointed assaults. After several attempts by the Mexicans to break through, the Americans successfully defended Buena Vista, forcing the Mexicans to fall back. While both sides claimed victory, Taylors successful defense further enhanced his image in the public eye, boosting his presidential bid two years later.In March, General Winfield Scott led the United States military in its first large-scale amphibious assault in American history at the Siege of Veracruz. After landing his troops at Collado beachheads south of the objective, the two sides engaged in 20 days of intense fighting. Scotts superior tactics and weaponry outperformed that of Mexicos General Juan Morales. The occupation of Vera Cruz allowed Scott to use its port as a supply hub for operations further inland.General Winfield Scott, distributed by D. Needham, 1847. Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian InstitutionGeneral Scott launched an ambitious offensive targeted at the Mexican capital, and by September 1847 American forces approached the Castle of Chapultepec, a key military fortification and training complex in Mexico City. Scotts artillerymen launched an effective bombardment of the target before ordering infantrymen to scale the castles walls and capture the stronghold. This bold strategy enabled the Americans to occupy Mexico City and bring an end to the Mexican-American War in early 1848.Key FiguresMexican-American War Generals Harvey, Wool and Mansfield by John Henry Bufford, 1861. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionThe Mexican-American War paved the way for prominent military and political leaders to thrive in the public eye. Victory in the Mexican-American War enabled President Polk to achieve all of his political objectives. After Polk honored his pledge to stand down after a single term, Zachary Taylor contested the 1848 election as the Whig Party candidate and defeated Democrat Lewis Cass of Michigan. Taylor died in 1850 after two years in office, and his colleague Winfield Scott led the Whig ticket in the 1852 election. Minister of War General Juan Almonte, who organized the defense of Mexico City, would eventually become a leading figure in the Second Mexican Empire.The relatively short conflict also gave opportunities for future commanders of the American Civil War to prove themselves in combat. Then-Captain Ulysses S. Grant served under Scott during the siege of Mexico City, playing a key role in creatively employing artillery to overcome restrictive terrain near Chapultepec Castle. This experience contributed to his reputation as a resourceful officer and empowered his rise as the Unions Commanding General and 18th American President.At the battle of Cerro Gordo in April 1847, Grant fought alongside future Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Pierre G. T. Beauregard. The latter would command Confederate forces at the Battle of Fort Sumter and the First Battle of Bull Run, while the former served as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and eventually surrendered to Grant at Appomattox in April 1865. Other famous figures of the American Civil War who served in the Mexican-American War include George McClellan, Thomas Stonewall Jackson, William Tecumseh Sherman, and George Meade.OutcomesTaylors victories on the Rio Grande, artist unknown, 1846. Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian InstitutionThe signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848 marked the end of two years of hostilities between the United States and Mexico. As the victorious power, the United States more than satisfied its prewar expansionist desires by acquiring over 500,000 square miles of land, increasing the size of the country by nearly one-third. Lands ceded by Mexico after the war include present-day California, Nevada, and Utah in addition to parts of Wyoming, Colorado, and Arizona. The United States, in return, compensated Mexico with $15 million while charging their southern neighbor with $3.25 million in debts owed to America.A major impact of the Mexican-American War was the uncertainty surrounding the status of slavery in Americas newly acquired territories. Abolitionists supported the proposed Wilmot Proviso, which set out to prohibit slavery in states attained via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, but the resolution was never passed by Congress. Continued disagreements about slavery would contribute to the outbreak of the civil war over a decade later.For Mexico, the wars outcomes were devastating. In addition to ceding a vast amount of territory and recognizing the US annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War exacerbated the countrys economic and political volatility. Thousands of Mexican citizens were left displaced in the territories yielded to the United States, leaving families to hastily choose to migrate deeper south into Mexico or accept residence in what had previously been a foreign land.Lasting Effects and LegacyGeneral Ulysses S. Grant, date unknown. Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian InstitutionIn addition to the short-term impacts which led to the Civil War, the conflict had long-term effects that can still be observed today. The once-disputed border region of Texas continues to present opportunities and challenges for each country. Illegal immigration, border security, and drug trafficking in the region are controversial topics that motivate national political discourse in the United States.From Mexicos perspective, the conflict inspires modern interpretations of historical grievances against the United States. While both sides played a role in instigating the war, the massive territorial gains by the United States contributed to decades of national trauma and complicated political bonds between the two countries. American territories acquired via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo such as California and Arizona now make a major contribution to Americas economy, amplifying the sense of loss in Mexico.There is little doubt that the Mexican-American War, while largely overlooked in the present day American history, had a major impact on both countries. Much like improved Anglo-American relations following the War of 1812, the United States and Mexico are fortunate to remedy historical differences to arrive at mostly positive political, military, and economic relationships between the two North American neighbors today.