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The Medieval Period, which spanned approximately 1,000 years from the 470s to the 1450s AD, was a period of cultural evolution. Populations migrated into major urban centers, which became symbols of power that benefited the ruling class through structures such as the feudal system. People lived in close quarters that were not always comfortable, but were certainly vibrant. These ten cities were not necessarily the largest in terms of land area or population, but they shaped life in the Medieval era.CityRegion / EmpirePeriod of Peak InfluenceTop Estimated PopulationAngkorKhmer Empire (Cambodia)c. AD 11001,000,000BaghdadAbbasid Caliphate (Iraq)700s-900s AD1,000,000Gangaikonda CholapuramChola Dynasty (India)AD 1025 12751,000,000ConstantinopleByzantine Empire (Turkey)Early Medieval Period1,000,000CairoFatimid/Mamluk Dynasties (Egypt)Founded AD 969500,000HangzhouSouthern Song Dynasty (China)12th-13th Centuries1,000,000+KaifengNorthern Song Dynasty (China)AD 960 11271,000,000ParisCapetian France14th Century (c. 1328)210,000 270,000TenochtitlanAztec Empire (Mexico)14th-15th Centuries200,000VeniceRepublic of Venice (Italy)9th-16th Centuries100,000+1. Angkor, Khmer Empire, CambodiaAngkor Wat, the largest temple of medieval Angkor. Source: Lonely PlanetAngkor was once the jewel of the Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia. The city was massive, both in land and population. IN AD 1100, it was considered the largest city in the world. The metropolis sprawled over 1,000 square kilometers (390 square miles) and housed around one million people.The only thing remaining from the grand city today is its central temple, Angkor Wat. But the capital city of the Khmer Empire was once a modern urban center. It featured roads as wide as airplane runways, canals, rice farms, and the worlds largest hand-cut water reservoir. It had an intricate system for navigating the monsoon season to make its harvests bountiful. The city of Angkor was ruled by god-kings, who were believed to be the earthly incarnations of the Hindu God Shiva. The citys population flourished, with schools and public hospitals.Abandoned Temple at Angkor.The temple city, as it is called today, was abandoned around the 1400s for a variety of factors. Military pressure from the neighboring Ayutthaya Kingdom, in modern-day Thailand, saw the city captured in 1431. Climate change, shifts in trade routes, and the widespread adoption of Theravada Buddhism all weakened the citys location and the power of its kings.Angkor remains an incredibly popular tourist destination today. However, several conflicts over the past few hundred years have made the excavation and analysis of the site difficult, so archaeological work is still ongoing.Almost every Khmer temple faces East, but Angkor Wat faces West. Historians believe this is because it was originally intended as a funerary temple for King Suryavarman II.2. Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate, IraqA map of Baghdad between the 8th and 10th centuries, by William Muir, 1883. Source: Muhammadism.orgBaghdad, located in modern Iraq, was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate from the early Middle Ages onwards. Construction on the city began in AD 762. By the end of the eighth century, the city was already home to half a million residents. It was the political and cultural center of the Middle East during its height. Between the 700s and 900s, approximately one million people lived in Baghdad or its suburbs.The city was built in two semi-circles on either side of the Tigris River. The infrastructure of the city was modern, with aqueducts and sewage systems, several public squares and gardens, and wide avenues. According to Yaqut, an Arabic scholar who lived a few centuries after the citys heyday, the avenues of the city were built to be 40 cubits (60 feet) wide. The city did not allow garbage or refuse to build up within its walls.Scholars at the Bayt al-Hikmat (House of Wisdom), the central library of Baghdad and a prominent center of scholarship in the early centuries of Islam, c. 1237. Source: Bibliothque nationale de FranceWhile Baghdad remained important throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern day, the Abbasid Caliphate was not what it once was after the 10th century, and the city declined. Two major attacks occurred during the Middle Ages, one in 1258 and one in 1401. Today, it is still the capital of modern Iraq and is the second-largest city in the Arab world.By the 9th century, Baghdad had over 100 bookshops. In a time when a European monastery might be proud to own 20 books, private libraries in Baghdad often held tens of thousands.3. Gangaikonda Cholaparum, IndiaTemple at Gangaikonda Cholaparum. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe southern Indian city of Cholapuram, the name of which translates as the city of the Chola who conquered the Ganges, was founded by the emperor Rajendra Chola I in 1025 to commemorate his successful military expedition to the Ganges in North India. He established the city as his new imperial capital, and it thrived for the next 250 years.The city was meticulously planned around the principles laid out in the Tamil Vastu and Agama Sastra sacred texts. The central jewel of the city was the Brihadeeswarar Temple, dedicated to Shiva, renowned for its temple tower, intricate carvings, and impressive sculptures. It housed many treasures from the region conquered by the Chola dynasty. It also had a large artificial lake filled with water from the distant Ganges.Thanks to Chola patronage, art, culture, and education thrived in the city, which grew to have a population of around one million people. But the city would decline with the declining power of the dynasty, and was plundered of most of its riches. However, the Brihadeeswarar Temple continues to be an active center of worship and learning.Tragically, in the late 19th century, British engineers dismantled much of the ancient citys outer granite walls and structures to use as raw material for building a nearby dam.4. Constantinople, Byzantine Empire, TurkeyConstantinople, as it would have looked around the 10th century, rendering by Antoine Helbert. Source: Vivid MapsConstantinople served as the great epicenter of the Byzantine Empire. Though it was founded in AD 330 by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, the city reached its zenith in the early medieval period. The fall of the Western Roman Empire shifted global focus to the Eastern Roman Empire, with its Emperor, Justinian, ruling from Constantinople.The city itself was large throughout the transitions it faced, from Roman to Byzantine to Ottoman and back again. The population, at various periods in history, was approximately one million people. It served as a major hub for trade. Constantinoples unique position straddling Europe and Asia poised the city to become a key player in international affairs and commerce. The Venetians, along with traders and merchants from the Middle and Far East, came to the city to do business, making its economy boom.Constantinople, from the Nuremberg Chronicle, by Hartmann Schedel, 1493. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHowever, Constantinople faced near-constant challenges, with sieges and battles often threatening to wipe it out. However, the city endured throughout the age of great medieval cities, becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. The city would remain a key player throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern period.Today, Constantinople is known as Istanbul, the capital of modern-day Turkey. It is still a huge city with strategic importance in the international affairs of both Europe and Asia.Built in the 6th century, the Hagia Sophia was the worlds largest cathedral for a millennium. The architects used pendentives to place a massive circular dome on a square room. With 40 windows at the base of the dome, the light made it look as if the ceiling was suspended by a golden chain from heaven.5. Cairo, Fatimid Dynasty, EgyptCairos Citadel, built in the 12th century. Source: medievalists.netCairo, Egypt, was built in AD 969 by the Fatimid Dynasty to rival Baghdad as the largest city in the Islamic world. It was the capital of the dynasty and served as an example of the power and enlightenment of Islam in the Middle Ages.Cairo is known as The City of a Thousand Minarets for good reason. A truly Islamic city, the number is not fabricated. Some claim that there are more than 1,000 mosques in the city. These places of worship, however, also served as places of administration and learning in the medieval city of Cairo. The Al-Hassan Mosque, Cairos first, was a center of education where thousands of young Egyptians and foreigners could learn, whether they were rich or poor.The courtyard of Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt, c. late 1800s. Source: The V&A, LondonWhen the city was taken over by the Mamluk Dynasty, mosques also served as hospitals and centers of community. The rulers, who had risen from slavery to power, cared for the lower classes and helped fortify the city as an Islamic stronghold against the Crusades. Cairo was also a key hub of commerce, as it sat at the confluence of European, African, and Asian trade. This position would make Cairo one of the worlds wealthiest medieval cities.Today, Cairo is still the capital of Egypt and is the largest city in the Arab world. It is a center of Islamic power in Northern Africa, despite several modern conflicts.Founded in AD 970, Al-Azhar University is one of the oldest degree-granting universities in the world. It made Cairo the intellectual heart of the Sunni and Shia worlds.6. Hangzhou, ChinaLeifeng Pagoda, built in the 10th century in Hangzhou. Source: Hangzhou ToursOne of the seven ancient capitals of China, Hangzhou may have been one of the largest cities in the world in the 12th century. With a population of at least one million people and its position at the end of the Grand Canal, Hangzhou thrived as a capital for several Chinese dynasties.Hangzhous location was paramount to its prosperity. It sat directly within the Silk Road trade network. It flourished as a trading city, with archaeological evidence of products from Hangzhou being found as far away as Iran. Hangzhou was the capital for both the Wuyue Kingdom and the Southern Song Dynasty. Even when it was not serving as a capital city, the strategic location of Hangzhou made it a powerful city.Map of Hangzhou, Matthus Merian, 1638. Source: SanderusThough it was well known for its wealth, Hangzhou was also a great center of Chinese culture, especially as it related to early literature and Buddhism. Its cultural and economic prowess attracted travelers like Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, who wrote of the city in grandiose terms. Marco Polo declared that it was without a doubt the finest and most splendid city in the world. He marveled at the citys paved streets and numerous bridges. Polos writings elucidate the splendor of Hangzhou in the 13th century, when it was still the largest city in the world.Hangzhou is still an important economic and cultural center today, with thriving rice and silk production. Though it is no longer a capital, it is still a metropolis with a modern population of at least ten million people.While the rest of the world was still lugging around heavy chests of gold or silver, Hangzhou was the heart of the first paper money economy.7. Kaifeng, ChinaAlong the River During the Qingming Festival, is believed by some to portray life in Kaifeng, an 18th-century copy of a 12th-century original. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKaifeng, like Hangzhou, was another of the ancient capitals of China. It thrived during the Northern Song Dynasty of 960 and 1127. The population peaked at around one million people. This was largely thanks to its strategic position connected to the mighty Yellow River, and later the Grand Canal, placing it on one of the countrys most important trade routes.Kaifeng had an extensive canal system that facilitated transport around the city. It was chosen as the capital by several other dynasties, including the Later Liang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou dynasties. But even when it was not the official imperial capital, it remained a major regional hub in Chinas northern plain. Its most striking architectural features were the Iron Pagoda and the Dragon Pavilion.An aerial view of Jinglong Gate ruins in Kaifeng. Source: China DailyLike many other economic centers, Kaifeng also developed into a center for art, culture, science, and innovation as it attracted students and intellectuals, which led to it becoming an early hub for the printing industry. Kaifeng also attracted a well-documented Jewish community that brought unique artifacts, foods, and culture to the region.Kaifeng waned after the fall of the Northern Song Dynasty and the Jurchen invasion in 1127. Today, it retains much of its ancient charm and is a popular tourist destination.Archaeologists have discovered that there are actually six different versions of Kaifeng stacked on top of each other like a giant layer cake, with the medieval Song city buried nearly 30 feet (10 meters) underground.8. Paris, FranceThe Right Hand of God Protecting the Faithful against the Demons, by Jean Fouquet, c. 1452-1460. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkStill the capital of France today, Paris came out of relative obscurity and developed into a large, cosmopolitan city in the Middle Ages. In the 10th century, Paris was considered little more than a provincial city. It had a cathedral, and not much else. This changed, however, when the Capetian Kings decided to rule France from the le de la Cit. They made it the site of their royal palace and the new Notre Dame Cathedral.Under the Capetians, Paris became a city that was important on three fronts: religious, educational, and commercial. The Left Bank of the Seine was a hub for important French monasteries and several colleges that were among the leading educational institutions in Europe. On the Right Bank, the ports, merchants, and markets made the city into a commercial hub. Its prosperity, combined with a focus on religion and education, led to Paris becoming an important center of illuminated manuscripts and the first city to develop buildings in the Gothic style.Map of Paris from 1572. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWe have no concrete idea of the number of people living in Paris before 1328. However, the census of that year counted over 61,000 households within the city, making the population estimate anywhere from 210,000 to 270,000. Though the city faced several hardships, including sieges and the Bubonic plague, it recovered to become one of the most populous cities in the western world during the Middle Ages.Paris was home to the most famous slum in the medieval world, the Court of Miracles. It got its name because beggars who appeared blind, crippled, or diseased in the city streets would miraculously be cured once they returned to their hideout at night.9. Tenochtitlan, Aztec Empire, MexicoA map of Tenochtitlan, published in Nuremberg in 1524. Source: Dumbarton OaksPerhaps the largest city in pre-Columbian America, Tenochtitlan was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire from the 14th to the 15th century. Built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, it was the site of royal palaces, temples, markets, and other public buildings that served the Aztec people well and contributed to the prosperity of the city and the empire.The Aztec Empire, from Tenochtitlan, had vast trade networks from the Gulf of Mexico and possibly into the Inca Empire. The population was probably around 200,000 people and was split into complex social classes, the most complex in the Mesoamerican world.Painting of Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco. Source: National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico CityWhen Spanish conquistadors arrived in the capital, they found a thriving city that was rivaled in population only by Paris or Venice in Europe. The palace of the emperor, Moctezuma II, was a sprawling complex that boasted zoos, botanical gardens, and aquariums. The city was, however, conquered by the Spanish, led by Hernn Corts, and turned into a municipality of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.While the city remained under Spanish rule for several hundred years, the capital of Mexico did not move, and was built around the medieval capital. Tenochtitlan sits at the historic center of modern-day Mexico City and is still one of the most populous cities in the Americas, with a population of almost ten million people.The Aztecs built floating gardens called chinampasthat were layers of mud and vegetation held together by willow trees planted at the corners. This resulted in nutrient-rich soil that allowed for up to seven harvests a year.10. Venice, ItalyThe Miracle of the Relic of the True Cross on the Rialto Bridge, by Vittore Carpaccio, 1494. Source: British LibraryConsidered by many to be the greatest maritime power of the Middle Ages, Venice began as a safe haven for refugees fleeing from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The marshy lagoon would serve as an important strategic location for what would become the Republic of Venice.Its access to the Mediterranean Sea allowed trade on a wider scope than the rest of Europe.The city-state of Venice began conquering areas within the Eastern Mediterranean. Meanwhile, it retained a high level of independence, both in religion and government, from Rome and other powers on the Italian peninsula. Venice was ruled by a doge, or a duke, who served for life and was elected by the Great Council of Venice. It was billed as a republic but was, in practice, ruled by oligarchs of the merchant classes.The Church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice by Johann Anton Eismann, 1698. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe city-state of Venice grew steadily and became a great center of art, architecture, and publishing during the Middle Ages. Its Renaissance, considered to have begun before the general Italian Renaissance.This was a direct result of its economic prowess and fostering of the arts in service to the maritime republic. Venices power was relatively unchecked until trade routes to the East Indies and the Americas opened in the 16th century. This granted other European powers the same ability to foster effective trade as Venice.Venice was incorporated into a unified Italy in the late 19th century. While it is still a center of culture within Italy, it is not considered the power it once was. It was a unique and completely maritime-focused power. Its canals are now used for the likes of tourist gondola rides and water taxis rather than vast naval fleets.Venice is built on millions of wooden stakes hammered into the silty earth below. They dont rot because the oxygen-poor mud and salty water cause the wood to petrify.