Guests ride on the Stardust Racers roller coaster at Epic Universe Theme Park at Universal Resort Orlando, April 10, 2025, in Orlando, Fla. John Raoux/APORLANDO, Fla.A woman has sued Universal Orlando

The Mexican-American War is one of the shortest armed conflicts in the history of the United States. In addition to serving as the proving ground for talented US Army officers who fought on both sides of the American Civil War, the war resulted in huge territorial gains for the United States, elevating its international prestige and opening up economic opportunities over the following decades. However, Americas victory has been subject to negative interpretations in recent years due to its impact on local populations.Historical ContextPresident James K. Polk by John Sartain, 1845. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionAlthough largely overlooked in modern society, the Mexican-American War was a significant event in American history. While the immediate causes of the conflict were the territorial disagreements following the annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845, the Mexican-American War is indicative of several larger geopolitical, economic, and military trends of the United States in the early and mid-19th century.After winning independence in the American Revolutionary War, the United States sought to expand its territory westward. Guided by the defining pillar of Manifest Destiny, the idea that America had a divinely inspired mission to spread liberal values across its home continent, during the first half of the 19th century American statesmen such as Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe acquired new land via the Louisiana Purchase and Adams-Ons Treaty respectively. While these agreements saw the country incorporate territory from 15 current-day states to the south and west of the original 13 colonies, the United States also hoped to acquire Mexican territories including Texas, California, and New Mexico.By 1846, border disputes with Mexico over Texas southern boundary boiled over into armed hostilities. Shortly afterwards, President James K. Polk successfully prevailed upon Congress to declare war after an offer to purchase the desired territories was rejected out of hand by the Mexican authorities. The United States secured victory in several early engagements including the Battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterrey as well as the Siege of Fort Texas.Final BattlesGeneral Winfield Scott, artist unknown, 1861. Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian InstitutionAfter intense fighting early in the conflict, the United States saw a path to final success by August 1847. At the Battle of Contreras, American forces under General Winfield Scott achieved decisive victory, opening the way to the Mexican capital. On the same day, August 20, 1847, Scotts soldiers effectively overcame Mexican defenses at Churubusco despite heavy resistance.Nearly three weeks later, Scotts army inched closer to Mexico City. On September 8, 1847, American forces defeated Mexican troops at the Battle of Molino del Rey after some of the bloodiest fighting of the Mexican-American War. Before reaching the capital, however, General Scott and his army, including then-lieutenant and future president Ulysses S. Grant, had to negotiate Mexican fortifications at Chapultepec Castle. The stronghold presented unique challenges for the American offensive, but to secure western avenues of approach to Mexico City, capturing the castle was vital.Through effective artillery bombardment and overwhelming infantry attacks, General Scott and his American troops successfully seized Chapultepec Castle from the outnumbered Mexican garrison. This victory allowed the swift capture of Mexico City after light civilian resistance and the departure of government officials, essentially ending major combat operations of the Mexican-American War on September 17, 1847. The Mexican government sued for peace and after five months the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was concluded between the two parties.Treaty of Guadalupe HidalgoMap of western states less than two decades after the Mexican-American War, 1865. Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian InstitutionAs the victors of the Mexican-American War, the United States was heavily favored in the terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Most significantly, Mexico was obliged to surrender over 50 percent of its land mass to the United States. The ceded territory, composed of the modern-day states of Nevada, California, and Utah in addition to parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming, fulfilled many of the expansionistic desires of the United States that caused the conflict.A second outcome of the agreement led to Mexican recognition of the American annexation of Texas and defined its boundaries. While Texas successfully obtained its independence from Mexico over ten years earlier, many Mexicans refused to recognize its legitimacy. After the war, however, Mexico acknowledged Texas as part of the United States and recognized its southern border at the Rio Grande River. While these territorial gains significantly benefited the United States, the Americans did offer some financial compensation. Despite assuming $3.25 million in debt owed to United States citizens, Mexico was paid $15 million for its lost lands.With over half a million square miles in newly acquired land, America faced the elusive question of how to handle Mexican citizens living in the newly annexed regions. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo granted affected peoples the option of moving within the revised and narrowed Mexican borders or stay put as American citizens with full civil rights.Americas Victorious GeneralsGeneral Zachary Taylor illustrated by Marie Alexandre Alophe, 1849. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian InstitutionThe Mexican-American War had tangible outcomes on the conflicts victorious leaders. Militarily, General Zachary Taylor commanded US forces during the early stages of the war and gained victory at Palo Alto and Buena Vista. These conquests made Taylor a war hero and inspired him to run a successful campaign to become the countrys twelfth president. Nicknamed Old Rough and Ready, the popular general took office in 1849 but died less than two years into his term.General Winfield Scott succeeded Taylor as commander of the main US army and achieved the victories that ended the conflict. Scott remained a key military figure up to the American Civil War and was responsible for Union strategy during its earliest stage, but his retirement in 1861 passed the torch to subordinate officers who served alongside him in Texas and Mexico. The Mexican-American War provided comprehensive combat experience to young junior officers Generals Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee, who served as the principal commanders of the Union and Confederate Armies during the Civil War. Grants victories in the Civil War paved his way to serve two terms as the countrys 18th president.Politically, President Polks policies and decisions helped instigate the Mexican-American War. Polk did not seek reelection after the end of his first term and died from illness three months later in June 1849. Despite enjoying a rise in public approval in the years following the conflict, Polks legacy has diminished over time. While the United States economically thrived with new territorial additions, critics including future president Abraham Lincoln were outspoken in their opposition to Polk, arguing that war with Mexico was a conscious effort to expand slavery.Long-Term Outcomes of VictoryIllustration of gold in California by Harry Cimino, 1926. Source: Smithsonian American Art MuseumAs victors of the Mexican-American War, the United States benefitted long-term from the conflict. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo granted over 500,000 square miles of land to the United States, which were subsequently organized into seven states that have made significant contributions to the American economy.In the years following the hostilities, California, one of the primary targets of American expansion due to its long Pacific coastline, witnessed mass immigration as a result of the Gold Rush. Officially beginning in January 1848, just weeks before the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgos signing, the California Gold Rush saw over 300,000 miners move west seeking to make their fortunes. While the movement lasted less than a decade and most entrepreneurs failed to become rich, its effects are far-reaching. The Gold Rush led to a diverse population boom, initiating a process to make it the most populous state in America today and an economic powerhouse as the home of Silicon Valley.A final lasting outcome of the Mexican-American War is the strong and lasting Mexican presence in southwestern regions of the United States. When Mexican families were given the choice of remaining in newly acquired territories or relocating to Mexicos reduced boundaries following the war, many civilians chose to stay in the United States with full protections under the countrys laws. This greatly influenced the society, culture, and economics in the southwestern United States.Modern InterpretationsTourists guide from an advertised route between Mexico and the United States, 1890. Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian InstitutionDespite the major benefits enjoyed by the United States after the Mexican-American War, the conflict also leaves a controversial legacy in the present day. The expansion of American frontiers resulted in the displacement of Native American tribes from acquired regions, mirroring developments after the War of 1812 just three decades prior. The methods by which the United States gained and exploited its southwestern territories are often viewed critically in the 21st century.Aside from harmful consequences to Native American groups, the Mexican-American War also opened the door to influential debates over the future of slavery in the United States. While Democratic congressman David Wilmot presented the Wilmot Proviso before Congress to prevent slavery from expanding into the regions obtained by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the proposal was rejected by Congress. Resulting disagreements surrounding slavery in both existing and newly acquired states contributed to the American Civil War just over a decade later. The 1850s saw the realignment of American party politics and the establishment of the Republican Party led by anti-slavery figures including President Abraham Lincoln.As a result, while the United States made considerable gains following victory in the Mexican-American War, many Americans believe the conflict was illegitimate and a cause of embarrassment for the countrys claims to be spreading freedom and democracy.

There are over 250 different species of cowrie shells around the globe. However, two species in particular became woven into various Asian and African societies both as a form of currency and an object with ceremonial, cultural, and ritualistic significance. From the 17th century, cowries, gold, and tobacco became entwined in the Atlantic, playing an integral role in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. In North America, cowries even found a place within the 17th and 18th century fur trade. From the beaches of the Maldives, cowries transformed into a cornerstone of the modern world.Monetaria Moneta: The Money CowrieCowrie money and Euro cent coins. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCowries can be found in the waters of Central Mexico, coastal East Africa, and areas of South and Southeast Asia. However, one species of cowrie in particular gained significance as a form of currency to the extent its Latin name, monetaria moneta, literally translates to money cowrie. It is found only in the Maldives, an archipelago (island group) off the coast of present-day Sri Lanka. It is here that the cowrie snail plays a role in the underwater ecosystem, eating algae to maintain the health of surrounding coral reefs and other habitats.Above water, however, cowries came to be valued for their visual appearance. Their milky-smooth surfaces have been likened to porcelain and vice versa. In fact, the word porcelain comes from the word porcellanaduring Marco Polos travels to China in the 13th century, he came across cowrie shells in various parts of Asia, particularly in trade settings. To him, the rounded backs of the shells bore similarities to a porcellus, or piglet. It is no wonder that Marco Polo saw similarities between porcelain and cowrie shells, as both had a polished glow and snow white surfaces.Extracting the CowrieTiger cowrie (Cypraea tigris). The snail can stretch its body around the shell, as depicted here. Source: FlickrAccording to various Arab, Portuguese, British, and Dutch sources, cowries were extracted using several methods. Cowries washed up on shore were considered low quality. This was due to surface weathering after being continuously rolled on the beach, causing them to lose their shine and luster. The small animal inside needed to be living in order for cowrie shells to be of any value. Cowries were also mainly found in the atolls, or islands surrounded by coral reefs, of Ari, Huvadhu, and Haddhunmathi.Although several methods of cowrie extraction have been recorded, the one used most frequently was the wading method. This involved going into sea at about hip-level and pulling cowries off stones beneath the shallow surface. With this method, around 12,000 could be gathered by a single person in a day. Notably, this labor would be done primarily by Maldivian women. However, this changed in the 19th century to include men, most likely due to high demand.Photograph of the North Mal Atoll, Maldives. Source: rawpixel.com10th century Muslim traveler and historian al-Masudi records that from the sea, shells would be placed on shore, where the unfortunate inhabitants of these shells would be dried out under the heat of the sun. Four centuries later, however, one of the most famous Muslim travellers, Ibn Battuta, records that shells would be buried underground in pits instead. After an intensive cleaning process with both sea and freshwater, they would be wrapped into bundles made from coconut leaves called kotta, which numbered 12,000 shells.Whichever method was used, the result was the sameonce the animal was dried out, the shell transformed from a part of the Maldivian biological ecosystem into a commodity ready to be exchanged between merchants operating in the Indian Ocean trade network.Ancient CowriesLeather container covered entirely with cowrie shells, Niger. Source: Science Museum Group, LondonCowries have been found at archaeological sites associated with the Shang Dynasty in China (1600-1046 BCE), the Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE), and the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE). The 1250 BCE tomb of Lady Hao (or Fu Hao), the favorite wife of Shang emperor Wu Ding, revealed over 6,800 cowries alongside jade, various metals, and other important objects. The cowries were definitely imports, and their presence within such a sacred space as an elite burial speaks to the high value ancient Chinese society placed on cowries.This also seeped into currencydue to the distance between China and the Maldives, cowries were not easily incorporated into the monetary system. Yet, they did not abandon the idea of cowries as money completely. Although the role of cowries within as currency in ancient China is much debated, cowrie-shaped objects were carved from materials such as stone, jade, metal, and bone. However, by the end of the Han Dynasty, these faux cowries would become replaced entirely by metal money in the form of coins.Cowries as Currency: Bengal and ThailandFrench cartographer Jacques-Nicolas Bellins map of the Bay of Bengal, circa 1747. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter being plucked out of Maldivian beaches, cowries would await export. Notably, cowries were not used as a form of currency within the Maldives itself, which used silver coins. The Bay of Bengal was one of the main export regions for cowries. This could have been due to the abundance of rice in this region, a diet staple of Maldivians. 14th century Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan even noted that one shipload of cowries would be sent in exchange for a shipload of rice.Through this exchange, the Bay of Bengal gained a steady influx of cowrie shells. By the 7th century CE, these were incorporated into their monetary system, alongside gold, silver, and also pearls. Over time, cowries began to be used for small transactions, followed by silver, then gold for larger transactions. In the Bay of Bengals Odisha province, Wang Dayuan recorded that 250 cowries could be exchanged for one basket of rice.Wat Chaiwatthanaram in Ayutthaya Historical Park in Ban Pom, Thailand. Source: pexels.comBengal also became an exporter of cowries to regions in the east, specifically on the monsoon trade routes to Southeast Asia. In present-day Thailand, cowrie shells were used as a form of currency. The Mangrayathammasart, a 13th century legal code promulgated by King Mangrai of Chiang Mai in present-day north Thailand, listed cowries as a form of payment for fines, alongside silver coins. Cowries would also be used for purchasing clothes, animals, tools, enslaved people, and even land. Cowrie shells were even used to incentivize soldiers. Allegedly, King Mangrai would provide soldiers with cowries and silver before battle, enticing members of Chiang Mai society to serve in his army (Baker and Phongpaichit, p. 98). Cowries were later used by the Kingdom of Ayutthaya in central Thailand, a major node in the Indian Ocean trade.Cowries, Culture, and Currency: Pre-1500s West AfricaBarjees (also Barjis) is a board game, possibly of Persian origin, where cowries are thrown onto an embroidered cloth board. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn an age of paper money, metal coins, and cards as common means of exchange, the concept of shells as currency may sound inefficient. However, cowrie shells were impossible to forge, were not easily broken, could not be melted down into something else, and were always of a similar size, shape, and weight. Besides currency, they could be easily incorporated into any ritual, ceremonial, or everyday object. This was especially the case in many regions throughout East, Central, and West Africa.The eastern coast of Africa, specifically from southern Somalia to Mozambique, is often referred to as the Swahili coast due to the presence of a unified Swahili culture. The Swahili coast was home to its own species of cowrie, the monetaria annulus, which were mainly from the Zanzibar archipelago off the coast of present-day Tanzania. Although cowries also circulated in West Africa, these were typically from the Maldives, and arrived in West Africa after a one-year journey through the trans-Saharan trade network.Maldivian cowries were present in West Africa at least by the 7th century CE. They were used as adornments in certain communities in the form of jewelry, headpieces, and as decorations tied into womens hair. A 7th century burial at the site of Kissi (present-day Burkina Faso) revealed several cowries drilled with holes, strung together and placed in the location of the head, possibly a woman, as a form of a headpiece.Cowries were also embedded with meaning exceeding the bounds of decorationthey were incorporated into rituals, ceremonies, objects, and became affiliated with symbols of fertility and protection. They also functioned as objects whose ownership demonstrated power and status. Further, at least by the 14th century, cowries were being used as currency in places like Gao (an inland city in present-day Mali).Sine Qua Non: Cowries as the Absolute ConditionA photograph of cowrie shells taken in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe longstanding history of cowries in West Africa was noted by the Portuguese in the 16th century, who understood that the societies they encountered on the West African coast, especially in the Bight of Benin (including present-day Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo), highly valued these objects and used them as a tool of monetary exchange. The Portuguese brought the first European shipment of cowries from the Maldives to the Bight of Benin in 1515. By 1690, cowries were an instrumental unit of exchange for European merchants to buy enslaved West Africans bound for the Americas.Although cowrie shells were used in West Africa prior to European arrival, following the establishment of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, cowries filtered into West Africa in unprecedented numbers. In the late 17th century, cowries were 20-50 percent of the purchasing price of a person (Heath, p. 61). This was 10-30,000 shells. By 1770, it rose to 160-176,000 shells. Cowries became the sine qua non, the absolute condition, to carry out trade with coastal West African leaders (Hogendorn, p. 32).1899 Map of the Slave Trade of Africa by Harry Hamilton Johnston and John George Bartholomew. Source: New York Public LibraryCowries werent the only currency of the slave trade (Heath, p. 61). Other objects, consumables, and materials desired by West Africans leading the slave trade were also incorporated into trade transactions. Many of these objects came from European colonies throughout the Americas and Caribbean, and were often produced by enslaved West African laborthese were items such as sugar, alcohol, gold, and tobacco processed with molasses from Bahia (present-day Brazil). Gold dust would usually remain in the hands of Dahomean kings, while cowries would circulate in local markets and all strata of West African society.Counting the CowrieString of cowrie Shells from Ancient Egyptian Hepy Burial, ca. 1950-1885 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtBetween 1700 and 1790, 10 billion cowrie shells were shipped from British and Dutch ports, like London and Amsterdam, to West Africa. A 1780 settlement between the Yoruba Empire and Dahomey Kingdom was made in 400 bags of cowries, the equivalent of 1,600 at the time. Today, this is the same purchasing power as approximately 247,540. However, how would this amount of cowries be accounted for and organized in transactions?Once in West Africa, cowries would often be drilled with holes and placed on string in units of 40. A similar method of drilling and stringing cowries would also appear in East Africa. In the Buganda Kingdom of present-day Uganda, East African cowries were put on strings of 100, but could be halved or even broken down to units of five per string. In doing so, they could be used for transactions of varying value. Even in the above photo of a Shang Dynasty cowrie carved from bone, a visible hole was drilled in the back. This could suggest a similar way of keeping cowries organized, as far back as 1200 BCE or even earlier.North American CowriesWampam Shoulder Belt for a Powder Horn, 19th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkCowries even travelled as far as North America, where they were also used as currency in the fur trade between European settlers and merchants with various indigenous groups. Cowries were present at several indigenous burials in Queens, New York and Long Island. It is possible they were brought to North America by both the Dutch and French. Trading in a natural currency like shells would not have been foreign to European settlerstransactions already taking place between themselves and various Cherokee, Algonquian, and Iroquois Confederacy peoples who used wampam as a currency, which were tiny shell beads. Burials of the Arikara in South Dakota have also revealed over 44 cowries of the Maldivian monetaria moneta species, indicative of the spread of the trade in cowries.From the Maldives to the WorldA Ghanaian one-cent cedi, issued in 1979. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCowries from the Maldives appear all across the globe. They are present in regions as far as China in the east, and North America in the west, not to mention all the cultures and regions in between. Cowries were, and still are, a commodity that connected many regions and cultures throughout both time and space. They were the currency for transactional exchange for anything from objects to people. Both an economic tool and a cultural object, their significance remains today, albeit in more opaque ways. In West Africa, although cowries are no longer used as currency, the Ghanaian one cedi coin bears an image of a cowrie.SourcesBaker, C., & Phongpaichit, P. (2017). A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Heath Barbara (2016). Commoditization, Consumption and Interpretive Complexity: The Contingent Role of Cowries in the Early Modern World. Presented at Society for Historical Archaeology, Washington, D.C.Hogendorn, J. S. (1981). A supplyside aspect of the African slave trade: The cowrie production and exports of the Maldives. Slavery & Abolition, 2 (1), 3152.

Napoleon Bonaparte dominated continental Europe as his French First Empire expanded at the start of the 19th century. Indeed, by 1808, Napoleon ruled an empire extending from Portugal to Poland. Napoleons army became the perfect instrument to execute the mobile and offensive style of war that military theorists dubbed Napoleonic. The army Napoleon forged was built upon ideas and innovations developed by French military theorists and commanders both before and during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802). However, some of Napoleons strategies and tendencies contributed to the armys defeat and his downfall.Napoleon Bonaparte & the Royal and French Revolutionary ArmiesThe Battle of Valmy, September 20th, 1792, by Horace Vernet, 1826. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The National Gallery, LondonIn the 18th century, France boasted one of Europes largest and finest armies. However, defeat in the Seven Years War and mounting debts, stemming in part from Frances participation in the American Revolution, weakened the countrys military capabilities and helped set the stage for the French Revolution in 1789.Moreover, the Revolution plunged the countrys army into a crisis of command and organization. In the early years of the Revolution, many aristocrats serving as officers resigned or even defected to join one of Frances enemies.While initially this command shakeup weakened the military, it also paved the way for many capable ordinary soldiers to be promoted based on merit. One such commander was none other than the young Napoleon Bonaparte.According to historian Gunther Rothenberg, Napoleons military strategies and organizational changes blended reforms and innovations suggested by others in the late 18th century (2006, 24). France, both before and during the Revolution, produced several prominent military theorists, including Lazare Carnot and Swiss-born Antoine-Henri Jomini.Moreover, French theorists were particularly strong in developing innovative techniques and approaches to artillery, including the Gribeauval system. Napoleon specialized in artillery during his military education.Revolutionary France also built a modern conscription system to ensure the mass mobilization of French society for war, beginning with the Leve en masse in 1793.Below, well take a closer look at how Napoleon embraced and modified these earlier proposals as he built the Grande Arme.Napoleon Bonaparte as Commanding GeneralPortrait of Napoleon as King of Italy, by Andrea Appiani, 1805. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaNapoleon Bonapartes talent as a battlefield commander and propagandist was another crucial factor in Frances military success during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.Napoleon was constantly focused on attacking his enemies and staying on the offensive. According to Gunther Rothenberg, the French emperor fought only three battles in his career on the defensive, all of which occurred between 1813 and 1814 (2006, 36).The success of most Napoleonic campaigns and battles depended on swift, long-distance marches and Napoleons ability to win meeting engagements. Historian J.P. Riley explains that a meeting engagement occurs when opposing forces on the march, lacking complete information about one another, unexpectedly collide. Napoleon generally welcomed chaos and confusion in the initial stages of battle (2000, 79).Propaganda was a key ingredient of Napoleons success as a commander. According to historian J. David Markham, Napoleon was a master of spin in our modern understanding (2003, 1). Beginning in Italy in 1796 and continuing throughout his career, Napoleon was involved in reporting his armys exploits. As Markham explains, Napoleon founded a newspaper for his Army of Italy in 1796-1797, where he shared stories to boost troop morale and bolster support in Paris. He continued this tradition through the bulletins he issued as Emperor (2003, 2-3).While he frequently exaggerated the extent of his victories and minimized his losses, Napoleons actual record on the battlefield was impressive. He also encouraged and sponsored engravings, prints, and even monumental art to tell the French people and the world about his exploits.Organizational InnovationsGeneral Bonaparte and his chief of staff, General Berthier, at the Battle of Marengo, by Joseph Boze, Robert Lefvre, and Carle Vernet, 1800-1801. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistorian Gunther Rothenberg noted that the weapons, equipment, and troop types in the armies of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars remained largely unchanged from those of Frederick the Greats army several decades earlier. What had changed was the size of the armies, their organization, and how armies were deployed (2006, 24-25).Armies fought more battles in Europe during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars than in prior conflicts. For example, historian Tim Blanning notes that 713 battles were fought over the 23-year period between 1792 and 1815. There had only been 2,659 battles during the preceding three hundred years (2007, 643). The sheer volume of battles suggests that Napoleon and his opponents sought a complete victory.According to Gunther Rothenberg, this decisive outcome was dramatically different from the more limited objectives of earlier warfare in Europe. Most wars before the French Revolution ended without many bloody battles due to a lack of funds and resources (2006, 25).Napoleon adopted new methods of organization, including the establishment of a permanent corps structure. Before Napoleon, commanders used corps temporarily.A permanent corps structure essentially created miniature armies. This meant that each corps traveled along designated roads and had specific foraging areas to gather supplies. The permanent corps system thus permitted Napoleon to execute rapid, long-distance marches without clogging up roads and exhausting supplies.In terms of organization, Napoleon benefited from the work of his chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier. Berthier became one of Napoleons marshals despite rarely receiving a battlefield command.Napoleonic Warfare & WarsNapoleon during the Battle of Eylau, by Antoine-Jean Gros, 1808. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The Louvre Museum, ParisThe Napoleonic approach to war emphasized mobility, speed, and the concentration of superior numbers. The strategy behind this approach was to quickly and decisively crush enemy armies, thereby securing a rapid victory in a campaign or war.Napoleon and other French officers of the era favored aggressive tactics. We can see evidence of Napoleons method of waging war from the onset of his career as a commanding general during the Italian campaigns of 1796-1797. Here, Napoleon split the opposing Austrian and Piedmontese armies and defeated them separately. In less than one month, Napoleon forced Piedmont to seek peace and laid the foundation for a successful campaign against the Austrians.However, no campaign captured the essence of Napoleons way of war more than the Ulm-Austerlitz campaign of 1805. Historian Tim Blanning points out that the Austrian commander at Ulm, General Karl Mack, estimated it would take Napoleons army 80 days to reach his position. In reality, Napoleons troops covered the 300 miles (480 km) in just 13 days. As a result, the French achieved complete surprise and forced Macks surrender (2007, 655). Napoleon followed up the capture of Ulm with his greatest victory at Austerlitz on December 2, 1805.Napoleonic strategies had a profound impact on generations of military commanders, especially in the 19th century. For example, Napoleonic strategy and tactics dominated the military thinking and battlefield decisions of American Civil War officers, as well as those of the legendary Prussian commander Helmuth von Moltke the Elder.Meritocracy and Compromise: The MarshalatePortrait of Louis Nicolas Davout holding his marshals baton, by Tito Marzocchi de Bellucci after Pierre-Claude Gautherot, ca. 1852. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Palace of Versailles, Versailles, FranceOne reason for the success of Frances army and the expansion of Napoleons empire was the blending of the egalitarian and republican spirit of the French Revolution with the traditional privileges and structure of the pre-Revolution Ancien Rgime (old order).Historians Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Todd Fisher note that when he ruled as First Consul, Napoleon established the Legion of Honor to recognize excellence in various fields, both civilian and military. This award created a sort of nobility, but one based on merit (2004, 28).Few areas of Napoleonic France experienced this compromise between old and new as strongly as the military. Well take one specific example of this fusion as seen in Napoleons senior command structure: the marshalate.The rank of marshal in the French army was a symbol of the Ancien Rgime. Fremont-Barnes and Fisher explain that initially, Napoleon nominated 18 generals as marshals. They were selected based on ability, personal loyalty to Napoleon, or because they represented a political faction Napoleon wished to win (2004, 28).Fremont-Barnes and Fisher point out that Marshal Davout was the youngest of the original appointments. Marshal Bessires was a nobleman who was also intensely loyal to Napoleon (2004, 29-30). Other marshals, including Lannes and Massna, came from humble origins.Napoleons insistence on a centralized command, however, created problems for his marshals. For example, his orders prevented marshals from acting independently. In an era before instant communication and battlefields shrouded in smoke, Napoleons orders could arrive long after the situation a particular marshal faced had changed.Napoleons Soldiers I: LoyaltyMilitary Festival at Boulogne with Napoleon Distributing Stars of the Legion of Honor, print by Victor Adam, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityHistorians Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Todd Fisher point out that a popular saying at the time suggested there was a marshals baton in every [soldiers] knapsack (2004, 28). Indeed, several of Napoleons marshals began their military careers as ordinary soldiers from the ranks.These words of encouragement inspired the troops of the Grande Arme, the name associated with Napoleons main army on campaign from 1805. As weve mentioned, Napoleon was a talented propagandist who helped cultivate his public image and legend. He was also a great motivator of his soldiers. According to historian Andrew Roberts, Napoleon taught ordinary people that they could make history (2014, 135).Napoleons soldiers also remained loyal followers because of their attachment to the regiment or unit in which they served. Napoleon recognized the value of legends and stories surrounding particular regiments as tools to inspire troops to fight and maintain discipline.Nevertheless, the life of a Napoleonic soldier was difficult. For example, soldiers often marched 20 miles (32 km) per day on campaign. According to historian Terry Crowdy, soldiers could march even greater distances if deemed necessary to execute Napoleons strategy (2002, 26).Napoleons emphasis on troops foraging for most supplies made sense during the lightning campaigns waged between 1796 and 1805. However, French troops suffered due to poor logistical situations in campaigns after 1805. According to historian Digby Smith, French supply systems broke down due to the increasingly larger armies, longer campaigns, and poor road conditions in places such as Spain and Eastern Europe (2010, 13).Napoleons Soldiers II: ConscriptionGrande Arme Infantry in 1812, by Carle Vernet, 1812. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe bulk of Napoleons armies were not made up of volunteers, but of conscripts from across the empire. As weve seen with various organizational and tactical innovations of the Napoleonic era, conscription had also been utilized with great success during the French Revolution.Historian Terry Crowdy notes that Jourdans Law of 1798 made all unmarried males aged 20-25 liable for military service. As troop shortages became an issue due to the frequent conflicts of the Napoleonic era, it was common for conscripts to be borrowed from the following years draft class (2002, 6). As a result, Napoleons armies grew younger and more inexperienced, particularly in the campaigns of 1813-1815.Departure of the Conscripts in 1807, by Louis-Lopold Boilly, ca. 1808. Source: Muse Carnavalet Wikimedia Commons/Muse Carnavalet, ParisPerhaps the most famous conscript class was the Marie-Louises. Crowdy notes that these teenage recruits derived their nickname from Napoleons second wife, Empress Marie-Louise, who signed the conscription decree in Napoleons absence during the 1812 Russian campaign (2002, 62).Conscription was deeply unpopular and became a source of resistance in many territories conquered by France. Many Germans, Italians, Swiss, and others were forced to join units attached to the Grande Arme.Occasionally, resistance to conscription helped fuel revolts against Napoleonic rule. In 1809-1810, Andreas Hofer led an Austrian-backed peasant revolt in Tyrol against Napoleons ally, Bavaria. Hofers Tyroleans resented Bavarian taxation and conscription policies, which were designed to support Napoleon against Austria, Tyrols traditional ruler. However, historians Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Todd Fisher explain that French and Bavarian forces crushed the revolt, and Hofer was executed in 1810 (2004, 144).The Decline and Defeat of the Napoleonic EmpireNapoleon near Borodino, by Vasily Vereshchagin, 1897. Source: Wikimedia Commons/State Historical Museum, MoscowResistance to conscription proved to be one of many problems Napoleonic France faced by the time the Grande Arme invaded Russia in the summer of 1812.According to historian Digby Smith, of the roughly 325,000 troops in the Grande Arme at the onset of the disastrous Russian campaign of 1812, only 155,400 were French (2010, 18). The size of non-French troops suggests, in part, the extent to which Napoleon controlled vast swaths of Europe. However, it also highlights the immense losses suffered by French soldiers during the years of bloody battles.Moreover, many of Napoleons best French forces were tied down in Spain and thus unable to join the Russian campaign. Spain indeed was another major factor in Napoleons eventual defeat. British forces, along with their Spanish and Portuguese allies, defeated multiple French armies in Spain and Portugal.Napoleon also failed to appreciate that his enemies could emulate his organization and tactics, thereby turning the tables on the French. Once coalition partners like Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia could concentrate their forces, it became difficult for French armies to achieve victory, even with a noted military genius like Napoleon as their commander.Although defeated in successive campaigns between late 1813 and June 1815, Napoleons Grande Arme left a lasting impact on modern militaries worldwide. Indeed, Napoleons campaigns are still taught in military academies. Moreover, the permanent corps system remains the main form of military organization in the 21st century.References and Further ReadingBlanning, T. (2007). The Pursuit of Glory: The Five Revolutions that Made Modern Europe, 1648-1815. Penguin.Crowdy, T. (2002). French Napoleonic Infantryman, 1803-1815. Osprey.Fremont-Barnes, G. and T. Fisher. (2004). The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. Osprey.Markham, J.D. (2003). Imperial Glory: The Bulletins of Napoleons Grande Arme 1805-1814. Greenhill Books.Riley, J. (2000). Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting. Cass.Roberts, A. (2014). Napoleon the Great. Penguin.Rothenberg, G. E. (2006). The Napoleonic Wars. Collins. (Original work published 1999).Smith, D. (2010). Armies of 1812: The Grand Arme and the Armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Turkey. Spellmount.

Produced during Koreas Joseon Dynasty (1392-1897), its last and longest dynasty, Joseon porcelain reflects Confucian values in its simplicity and elegance. Over more than five centuries, its development evolved from Buncheong Ware (grey stoneware) to refined white porcelain. With ceramics playing a significant role in Joseon society, particularly for its aristocracy, its production reflects key events such as war and the rise of new leadership.The Joseon DynastyGyeongbokgung Palace, Seoul, built 1395, photo by Konrad Ziemlewski. Source: UnsplashKoreas Joseon Dynasty was its longest-lasting imperial dynasty, spanning from 1392 to 1910. It is also remembered as a significant period of development for Korea as a nation. It saw the invention of the Korean phonetic alphabet (Hangul), Japanese and Manchurian invasions, and the rise of an aristocratic scholar class (yangban). There was a significant degree of technological advancement, particularly in medicine, science, and astronomy. The dominating Yi family drew much influence from their relationship with China, including a similar bureaucratic style and an emphasis on Confucian ethics in society.Culture and art also flourished during this time, particularly artistic styles that differentiated Korea from its other Asian neighbors. Folk painting (minhwa) developed, as did scholarly painting based on Confucianism. Screen paintings sat in the homes of those in power, depicting specifically Korean motifs such as peonies. The creation of ceramics also underwent vast changes, ultimately leading to the invention and popularization of white wares.Buncheong WareLidded Placenta Jar with Floral Motif and Cover with Lotus Petal Motif of Prince Gyeyang (1427-1464), 1439, Buncheong with stamped design. Source: Denver Art MuseumFor the first 200 years of the Joseon Dynasty, buncheong wares were the dominant ceramic. They are defined by their grey body, embellished with a white slip and green-tinted glaze. They were preceded by the famed celadon ceramics of the Goryeo Dynasty, defined by their similar green-grey hues. They also have regional characteristics, with some having incised designs or iron-painted decorations.The majority of these wares were produced for use in government bureaus and courts, and their production occurred in a singular area (bunwon) just outside of todays Seoul. By the 16th century, however, demand expanded beyond the Joseon elite, and production was decentralized, with kilns springing up all over Korea. It was at this time that these kilns began to cater to the rising popularity of porcelain.Invasion by JapanDefence of Busanjin Fortress, 18th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBetween 1592 and 1598, Japan invaded Korea in what is known as the Imjin Wars. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Japans military leader, desired an empire and had long-standing plans to leverage the Korean peninsula as an entry point into China. The impact of the war was devastating. The arts, economy, and society of Korea were transformed. Large regions were left in ruins, which caused food shortages and famine.Much of Koreas cultural heritage was also lost, including that of the kilns producing its popular ceramics. Hideyoshi had a particular affinity for these ceramics, and thus, skilled pottery families were forcibly emigrated to Japan. They were forced to follow strict rules while residing there, including restrictions on whom they could marry and where they could go. As a result, the ceramics industry of Joseon Korea was decimated. By the 17th century, it was unable to keep up with the demand for white porcelain, and grey clay was used as a substitute. Most porcelain was undecorated as acquiring the sought-after blue pigment was costly.And yet, there was some hope in the aftermath of war. There was a cultural resurgence in which national pride became a central theme in the arts. Landscapes and scenes of Korea were particularly popular in painting, though the ceramic industry took some time to rebuild. This rise of nationalism laid the groundwork for a more distinct Korean cultural identity.The Rise of White PorcelainBrush Holder with Lotus Decoration, mid-19th century, Porcelain. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtThough white porcelain, baekja, can be traced back to the Goryeo Dynasty (935-1392), its production came into its own in the late 15th century. Early in the Joseon Dynasty, King Sejong (1397-1450) issued an edict stating that the expensive silver dishware commonly used in court be replaced with white porcelain. It quickly became the pottery of choice at the Joseon court, and royal kilns were constructed near the capital Hanyang, todays Seoul, in Gwangju, which had plentiful amounts of firewood and clay.Aesthetically, it represented the dominant Confucian values of the time, emphasizing simplicity and discipline. This focus on restraint marked a change from the extravagance of the previous Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392). Rituals were performed with a sense of consistency, repeatedly using the same white porcelain pieces.Blue Underglaze and Iron PigmentJar with Dragon Design, 1700s, Porcelain. Source: The Cleveland Museum of ArtInspired by Chinese styles, pieces with a cobalt blue underglaze were used in various royal family ceremonies and state functions. The pigment was painted onto objects, creating beautiful designs, from dragons to poems by well-known Confucian scholars. Over the Joseon Period, artisans developed styles distinct from those from China, painting plants, flowers, and animals.However, there was an issue with this much-desired pigment. It was imported from China, which made it expensive and challenging to attain a regular supply. Only members of the royal family could afford such luxuries. Iron oxide was much more affordable, and kilns that were not serving the royals produced such ceramics. These became particularly popular during the Japanese invasion, as they were more accessible for common people.The Iconic Moon JarMoon Jar, 18th century, Porcelain. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtA discussion of Joseon porcelain would be incomplete without a mention of the iconic moon jar. Popularized during the reigns of King Yeongjo and King Jeongjo (1824-1800), a time of cultural flourishing when Korea turned inwards, they epitomize the aesthetics of the period, particularly a focus on revered scholarship. Resembling their namesake, these round, bulbous-shaped objects symbolize prosperity and good fortune.Artisans were able to achieve their bright white color by using a refined white clay lacking iron oxide, which creates a green tint, as seen in Goryeo ceramics. This clay requires a high firing temperature of 1300C, meaning that kilns producing moon jars required huge amounts of firewood. As a result, kilns were moved every ten years due to the rate of resource consumption.The shape itself was made in two separate sections and joined together. Each piece was handmade, resulting in a slightly altered circle shape. This meshed well with the appreciation for the imperfections of nature that came with the dominant Confucian ideology at the time.Kwon Dae Sup Solo Exhibition, 2021, Jonyun Gallery, Seoul. Source: Kiaf SeoulJoseon ceramics are a testament to the artistry and craftsmanship of Koreas longest-ruling dynasty. They teach us much about society and history during this period, particularly the lives of the elites. From early buncheong wares to refined white porcelain, these ceramics reflect the Confucian values predominant in society at the time. Today, these objects continue to be admired and studied.Interest in moon jars in particular is huge today, with such objects being sought out by wealthy and influential collectors. They have also inspired contemporary artists, such as Kwon Dae-sup, who has devoted his career to producing moon jars using traditional methods.

Perrys flagship Powhatan. Source: Peabody Essex MuseumFor over two centuries after 1600, Japan existed as an enigma wrapped in a mystery, refusing nearly all interactions with the rest of the world. The mid-nineteenth century altered that world entirely as American ships, painted black, sailed into Tokyo Bay.IsolationEuropeans in Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJapans involvement with Western countries started with Portuguese ships landing in 1543. Within a short time, Europeans came to Japan. In return, Japanese traders went to parts of Asia or the Philippines. The cultural influence traveled both ways, often to mutual benefit. By 1600, the attitude of the Japanese Bakufu, or government under the Japanese Emperor, had shifted completely.The Bakufu saw Western influences and unfair trading practices as a threat. For example, Jesuit priests converted thousands of Japanese to Catholicism, replacing the emperor as a deity. Fearing that, plus political instability, the Bakufu under the Shogun expelled most foreigners. The Dutch, Koreans, and Chinese maintained a legal but extremely restricted status. By 1630, Japan had become a mystery, reacting fiercely to any intrusions for two hundred years.Tokugawa EraTokugawa Ieyasu, by Kano Tan Yu, early Edo Period. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite closing itself off, the Tokugawa Era sprouted into one of prosperity, economic growth, and stability. The samurai, peasant, and noble society grew into a stable, stiff hierarchy with the emperor at the top. The economys complexity quickly matched anything developed in the West.The Black ShipsOne of Perrys steam-driven Black Ships. Detail from British Library manuscriptTo Japans shock, on July 8, 1853, four black-painted ships entered Tokyo Bay, sailing against the tide. These ships, under the command of American Commodore Matthew Perry, came with the expressed mission of opening Japan to the West, especially the United States. The missions goals included coal stations for American ships, proper treatment of American sailors, and opening Japans ports to trade.The Japan Expedition wanted to establish America as a power in Asia, and Japans ideal location met that goal. Perrys four ships were immediately swarmed by Japanese guard boats ordering the Americans to depart. However, Perry refused, stating he carried a letter for Japans emperor; this could only be delivered to him, and Perry would carry out his mission by force if needed.Shogun in Audience. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of ArtThe Bakufu in Edo waivered but ultimately relented after discussions between the local leaders and the Shoguns Council of Ministers in Edo (now Tokyo). The Bakufu knew their weapons to be inferior to those that Perrys ships carried. Two local leaders accepted the American letter, hoping to end this embarrassing visit, but Perry said he would return next year to establish diplomatic relations. Perrys first visit caused a crisis. Some nobles, or daimyo, wanted to resist, while others advocated a measured reply. All knew that Perrys Black Squadron would be back. The first crack had just appeared.The Return and More ProblemsThe Treaty of Kanagawa Signing 1854. Source: Library of CongressThe American fleet returned on February 13, 1854, with nine ships looking to negotiate. The fleet arrogantly moved further up Tokyo Bay. The Tokugawa Bakufu had strengthened defenses around Tokyo Bay in case of clashes.After weeks of stalling, counter demands, and threats of force, Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa on March 13, 1854, meeting all American demands. Besides trading rights, two Japanese ports were opened to American ships and traders: Shimoda and Hakodate. Perry succeeded in his mission, but the Treaty gave Japan a number of problems.First, many daimyo resented foreigners living in Japan. Others chafed under Tokugawa rule and saw the Bakufus American dealings as a weakness. They feared Japans fate would be carved up like Chinas. The Bakufu got criticized overtly. Over the next several years, the Russians, French, and British demanded and got similar trading concessions, further weakening the Shoguns hold on the country.Pressure and Imperial ResponseEmperor Meiji. Source: Mainichi ShinbunThe strain on the Bakufu became worse as the 1850s closed out. Opposition to any foreign treaties grew with the nobles. The daimyo remained nationalistic, still calling for the expulsion of the Westerners. Each time the Shogun tried to bargain with the daimyo, they grew weaker in their opponents view. Walking the line between Treaty obligations and mollifying their opponents proved difficult.Even the Imperial Court sensed the Bakufu weakening as it opposed any Shogun candidates, something that had not been performed in centuries. In 1859 the Bakufu signed a new treaty, though opposed by the emperor, allowing significant concessions, like unrestricted trading and extraterritoriality. Clashes broke out in 1865 following Emperor Osahitos death between nationalists and the Bakufu. The nationalists, loyal to the new Emperor Meiji, fought hard. By 1867, the Bakufu had given up restoring all of the rule to the emperor. The Black Ships under Perry came when the Shogun and Bakufus control weakened. Unable to respond to pressure on both sides, the Bakufu collapsed; Japans rapid modernization would soon begin.

Even before the Age of Exploration, spices were traded globally along the Silk Road, an ancient trade route connecting Europe with China. Fueled by myths of their mysterious origins and their intoxicating scents, the European craving for spices enriched merchants and led to a series of explorations to find the distant lands where they originally grew. In this sense, the struggle for the monopoly of the profitable spice trade in the 15th century was the force behind the voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus, and Ferdinand Magellan.Setting the Stage: The Spice Trade in the Middle AgesIndian spices in wooden trays, by enviromantic. Source: iStockIn Il Milione (The Million, commonly known as Travels of Marco Polo), an account of his 25 years in Asia, Italian merchant and traveler Marco Polo described Java as a very rich island, producing pepper, nutmeg, spikenard, galingale [galangal], cubebs, and cloves, and all the precious spices that can be found in the world. He then added that the island is visited by great numbers of ships and merchants who buy a great range of merchandise, reaping handsome profits and rich returns.Compiled at the end of the 13th century, Marco Polos book is a testament to medieval Europes craving for spices, as well as its limited geographical knowledge of the East. Indeed, while spices were the worlds first globally traded product, Europeans had only vague notions of how spices were harvested and even hazier knowledge about the regions where they grew.When the Polo family embarked on their extended travels throughout Asia, Venice held the monopoly of the European spice trade. Between the 11th and the 15th centuries, Venetian merchants and traders had easy access to Constantinople, Alexandria, Beirut, and ports on the Mediterranean and Black Seas. They then sold the spices bought in the Middle East on the European markets, where they would charge from 50 to 100 percent more for their products.Illustration from the French edition of The Adventures of Marco Polo, by Matre de Boucicaut et Matre de Mazarine, ca. 1410-1412. Source: Wikimedia Commons/BnF Gallica Digital LibraryThe Republic of Venice secured its hold on the lucrative trade with the naval war of Chioggia (1378-1381), when its forces defeated the Republic of Genoa, Venices long-time commercial rival in the Levant. The Venetians monopoly on the spice trade began to decline after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the emergence of a new power, the Ottoman Empire.In the following decades, as the Ottoman Turks established their supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, the networks of European merchants in the Middle East were severely restricted. Only the Republic of Venice managed to retain some control over the spice trade. Faced with heavy tariffs and an Islamic monopoly on the traditional land routes connecting Europe with the East, several European maritime powers began looking for alternative ways to reach the spice-growing lands.By then, a number of European travelers (such as the Polos) and missionaries had already visited India for the first time in centuries and reached China and some lands east and south of China for the first time ever. These first glimpses at China and the East Indies were largely made possible by the so-called Pax Mongolica (Mongolic Peace), a period of stability (named after the Pax Romana) in Eurasia during the height of the Mongol Empire.The Catalan Atlas, a 14th-century world map attributed to Cresques Abraham, ca. 1375. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisIn the 13th and 14th centuries, people, ideas, and trade traveled along the Silk Road, advancing Europes geographical knowledge of India and China. While the contemporary maps used a mix of Biblical stories, Christian prophetic literature, and travel accounts to depict Asia, Europeans began to acquire more exact notions of what lay beyond the Levant, realizing that the islands south and east of China were the source of many spices.A Crave for SpicesLes Heures lusage de Rome, a medieval prayer book known as the Book of Hours, printed by Philippe Pigouchet, 14th century. Source: The NewberryIn his The Poetics of Spices, Timothy Morton remarks that yesterdays banquet ingredient becomes todays Dunkin Donuts apple-cinnamon item. Indeed, while spices were so sought after and lucrative that European powers discovered the New World in an effort to control the spice trade, today, aromas such as cinnamon and nutmeg can be cheaply bought in every supermarket. So, why did medieval Europe crave spices so much to explore the world in search of them?The most common explanation for the medieval and early modern demand for exotic aromas is that spices could effectively cover the taste of spoiled meat. Historian Paul Friedman, however, dispels this theory in his Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination, arguing that in the Middle Ages fresh meat was not all that hard for the reasonably affluent to obtain. Additionally, given the high prices of spices, trying to improve dubious meat with cloves or nutmegs would have been something like slicing Italian white truffles to liven up the taste of a fast-food cheeseburger, Friedman declares.Indeed, the 1431-1432 household accounts of the count of Oxford reveal that a whole pig cost as much as a pound of pepper, the cheapest spice in European markets. So, if the perishability of meat alone does not explain the medieval love for spices, a truer answer to the craving for pungent aromas lies in the religious, culinary, medical, and social connotations of spices. From the more than 100 medieval cookbooks surviving today, it emerges that spices were ubiquitous in the Middle Ages, with around 75 percent of their recipes calling for exotic condiments.Page from Liber receptorum medicinalium, a medical text by the English surgeon John Arderne, 15th century. Source: University of Cambridge Digital LibraryBesides the medieval penchant for strongly flavored food, the high value of spices was also due to the widespread belief in their medical properties. In particular, medieval doctors believed that spices could be effective in preventing and curing illnesses, as well as balancing the four humors (internal fluids) thought to control a persons mood and physical health.As most spices were dry, they were added to sources paired with fish or meat, foods that had a supposedly wet quality. Sugar (considered a spice in the Middle Ages) was often combined with medicinal ingredients to produce medicines known as electuaries in a variety of textures, from gummy and chewy to hard.Not only did most medieval dishes and medicines feature some kind of spice, but they also employed a wide variety of aromas. An early 14th-century commercial handbook compiled by Florentine merchant Francesco Pegolotti, La pratica della mercatura (The Practice of Commerce), listed almost 290 spices, including some with exotic-sounding names, such as dragons blood and grains of Paradise.The distant and mysterious origins of most spices contributed to their economic and social value in medieval Europe. Indeed, myths about serpents guarding the pepper trees growing in India increased not only its price on European markets but also its allure. The combination of high prices and exoticism turned spices into symbols of wealth and social prominence.The 1475 wedding banquet of George the Rich, Duke of Bavaria, and Jadwiga of Poland, for example, featured a staggering amount of spices: 386 pounds of pepper, 286 pounds of ginger, 257 pounds of saffron, 205 pounds of cinnamon, pounds of cloves, and 85 pounds of nutmeg.Portuguese Navigators & the Age of ExplorationFra Mauros world map, mid-15th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, VeniceGiven the economic and social value of spices, it is not surprising that European maritime powers sought to find alternative routes to the East when Muslim states controlled the existing trading connection, hindering Western commerce and driving up prices.The first power to embark on voyages of exploration in search of spices was Portugal. Sponsored by Prince Henry, nicknamed the Navigator by the English (although he never actually took part in any exploratory endeavors), the initial Portuguese enterprises of the Age of Discovery in Africa, in the mid-1420s, aimed to profit from the trade of gold and enslaved people rather than looking for spices.Between 1419 and 1431, Portuguese navigators explored the western coast of Africa, landing in Madeira and the Azores, where they began cultivating sugar. In the following decades, Portuguese caravels, new and lighter ships, ventured toward the southern end of the African coast, reaching as far south as Cape Verde and Sierra Leone.The mid-15th-century Portuguese exploration of the African coast proved crucial in advancing Europes geographical knowledge. In his world map, for example, Fra Mauro, a monk and cosmographer living in the Camaldolite monastery of San Michele in Isola (Venice), referenced Portuguese navigations to conclude that it was possible to circumnavigate Africa, as the continent was surrounded by water. This notion went against the prevailing belief of the time, based on Ptolemys Geography (1st century BCE), that the Indian Ocean was landlocked, thus excluding the existence of a sea route east by south to India and Cathay (present-day northern China).Vasco da Gamas Arrival in Calicut in 1498, by Roque Gameiro, ca. 1900. Source: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, LisbonFra Mauros intuition was confirmed about half a century later, in 1488, when Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the promontory at the southern end of present-day South Africa, on his return voyage to Portugal. Dias voyage was sponsored by King John (Joo) II of Portugal in his efforts to find a new sea route to the lands of spices, break Venices monopoly on the spice trade, and fight Islamic rule in North Africa.Indeed, the 15th-century quest for spices was deeply intertwined with the search for Christian allies in the East, an endeavor based on the legend of Prester John, a legendary ruler rumored to be located in India. In 1497, when Vasco da Gama circumnavigated Africa and reached Calicut on Indias west coast, he did not find Prester Johns kingdom. However, he finally disproved Ptolemys idea of a landlocked Indian Ocean and paved the way for Portugals monopoly on the spice trade.In the following decades, from their main base in Goa, the Portuguese established a series of strong posts in the East, reaching Malacca, the Moluccas, Java, and Macau. Portugal would control the spice trade until the 17th century, when the Dutch and English demolished its monopoly in the East.A New World? Christopher Columbus VoyagesPortrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus, by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityBefore King John II sent Bartolomeu Diaz to find the southern extremity of Africa, another explorer, Christopher Columbus, tried to secure the kings support for an ambitious project: reaching India by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. The Portuguese monarch, however, rejected his plan. The Italian-born navigator finally managed to obtain patronage for his voyage in 1492, when Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile agreed to finance his endeavor.Columbus, fueled by a mix of religious fervor and desire for prestige, sailed from Palos in Spain on August 3, 1492, with a fleet of three ships, the Nia, Pinta, and Santa Mara. Upon reaching the Canaries, he turned westward, thinking he would land on the coast of India. The Genoa-born explorer had mapped out his route based on the calculations made by Florentine mathematician and geographer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, who, in turn, used the information found in Ptolemys Geography to measure the distance between Europe and Asia.From Lisbon directly westward there are in the chart twenty-six spaces, each one of which contains 250 miles, as far as the great and noble city of Quinsai [present-day Hangzhou], as well as at Cipango and Cathay, wrote Toscanelli in a 1474 letter to the Portuguese cleric Freno Marins. Unaware of the existence of the American continent between Europe and Asia, Toscanelli underestimated the size of the globe and reduced the actual distance between the Canaries and Cipango (present-day Japan) by about one-third.The 1507 Waldseemller Map, the first document to show the lands discovered by Columbus as a New World. Source: Library of CongressOn October 12, 1492, when Columbus made landfall on the Island of San Salvador, he mistakenly believed he had finally reached the East. In 1493, after his return to Spain with a cargo of gold, spices, and prisoners, the Spanish monarchs sent Columbus on a second voyage to the Indies. A third and fourth expedition, in 1498 and 1502-1504 respectively, then followed, as the navigator explored the coast of Central America in search of a passage to the west.Christopher Columbus died in 1506, two years after his fourth and last sea voyage. It is unclear whether or not he was still convinced that he had reached Asia. By then, English explorer John Cabot and Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci had also explored the lands discovered by Columbus: present-day North and Central America. During his 1501-1506 voyage, Vespucci finally realized these newly found lands were not part of Asia but a New World.In the 1507 world map created by Martin Waldseemller, the southern portion of the new lands was given the name America after Amerigo Vespucci himself. The Waldseemller map marked a huge leap forward in geographical knowledge: the quest for spice had led Europe to radically change its understanding of the world.Ferdinand Magellan: Circumnavigating the GlobeMap showing the entirety of Magellan and Elcanos circumnavigation of the globe between 1519 and 1522, by Semhur. Source: Penn Today, University of PennsylvaniaMore than ten years after Waldseemller compiled his revolutionary world map, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to achieve Columbus goal of reaching Asia by a westward course. After sailing from Spain on September 20, 1519, Magellans five-ship fleet reached the bay of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in December and began searching for a passage leading west to the Pacific Ocean.In October 1521, Magellan finally found the strait he had been seeking at approximately 5250 S. After 38 days, three of the five ships finally emerged from the narrow, tortuous, and rock-walled passage later named after Magellan. For the following 14 weeks, the remaining crew sailed across the vast extent of the ocean that Magellan later named Pacific for its calm waters.Detail of the Victoria, the only ship to survive the circumnavigation, from a 16th-century map of the Pacific Ocean by cartographer Abraham Ortelius. Source: Penn Today, University of PennsylvaniaThe exhausted and scurvy-ridden men finally made landfall on the island of Guam on March 6, 1521. Ten days later, they reached the Philippines, where Ferdinand Magellan died during a clash with local inhabitants on the nearby Mactan Island. The rest of the crew sailed on the Moluccas, thus successfully circumnavigating the globe for the first time. Of the five ships, only one, the Victoria, managed to return to Spain under the command of Juan Sebastin Elcano with a cargo full of spices.Deeming that the remaining crew would likely not survive another long voyage across the Pacific, Cano returned to Europe across the Indian Ocean and up the western coast of Africa. On September 9, 1522, 17 of the 235 who had embarked on Magellans fleet three years earlier arrived in Seville. The circumnavigation of the globe had finally demonstrated that between Asia and Europe stood a new continent.The Spice Trade After the Age of ExplorationThe Return to Amsterdam of the Second Expedition to the East Indies, by Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom, 1599. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamIn the decades following Magellans voyage, English, Dutch, and French explorers continued to travel to the newly discovered lands, expanding the European powers commercial empires. In 1577, English admiral Francis Drake passed through the Strait of Magellan and circumnavigated the globe, making landfall on the Moluccas in the summer of 1579. A year later, Drake returned to Plymouth Harbor with a ship full of spices. Despite Spains complaints about his conduct while in imperial waters, Queen Elizabeth I knighted him aboard his Golden Hind.In 1595, brothers Cornelis and Frederik de Houtman led the first Dutch expedition to the East Indies, aiming to establish trade relations with the Spice Islands and challenge the Portuguese monopoly on the spice trade. Three years later, another trading expedition under the command of Jacob van Neck also reached the East Indies, returning home with a cargo full of spices. These successes contributed to the foundation of the Dutch East India Company, a trading company aimed at protecting the countrys interests in the Indian Ocean. In 1600, the British had already founded their own trading company, the East India Company, to take part in the spice trade.The East Offering Its Riches to Britannia, by Spyridon Romas, 1778. Source: Wikimedia Commons/British Library, LondonBy the 17th century, the Dutch and British had successfully broken the Portuguese monopoly on the spice trade. By then, however, the craving for the aromas that had launched the Age of Exploration had already subsided in Europe as culinary tastes began to change across the continent, favoring less rich flavors. In his Larte di ben cucinare (The Art of Well Cooking, 1662), Bolognese cook Bartolomeo Stefani calls for a moderate use of spices in most dishes. Do not add spices, for when it is cooked it will be good, he recommended about making beef stew.While spices may no longer be exotic and luxury items, it is undeniable that the European desire to find a route to the spices is among the most significant forces the world has known, paving the way to colonialism.

I have been a fan of the works of Goichi Suda51 Suda for nearly two decades now, first stumbling upon him with the original Wii release of No More Heroes and backtracking a bit to play Killer7. Suda is, to me, the archetypal auteur game director; he makes exactly the games he wants to make and fills them to the brim with his specific niche interests, many of which happen to align with my own.

Justice Department directive under Trump administration cites potential charges including material support for terrorism. By yourNEWS Media Newsroom The Department of Justice has launched a sweeping

USCIS warns that American sponsors will be held financially and legally accountable if migrants they support rely on taxpayer-funded assistance. By yourNEWS Media Newsroom The Trump administration issued