I dont like this one bit at all. Major League Baseball has announced it will introduce robot umpiring in the 2026 season. The new robot umpiring system will consist of an automated ball and strike

The Common Core Diva Lynne Taylor joins me in this episode for a real eye opener to warn parents about the traps being set for them and their children in education.Visit Common Core Diva Buy All-American!

Those who created this country chose freedom. With all of its dangers. And do you know the riskiest part of that choice they made? They actually believed that we could be trusted to make up our own

The American dream of working hard and attaining riches seems like a fable to most. Immigrant John Jacob Astor envisioned it as his reality and achieved it, creating a fortune, generational wealth, and an American business dynasty. He was not born into success, but with incredible business acumen, friends in the fledgling US government, and a little luck, Astor would become a recognized name in his time and in history. How did he manufacture his success, and what was his impact on the young United States?Son of a ButcherSarah Astor. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJohann Jakob Astor, born July 17, 1763, did not come from wealth. His father was a butcher in Walldorf, located in southeastern Germany. He spent his younger days working for his father, but at the age of 16, he left Germany and headed to London to join his older brother, George, who was working for an uncle who made musical instruments. Four years later, with the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War, he traveled to the newly-minted United States, with about 25 dollars and some flutes to sell. He anglicized his name to John Jacob, and with his brother, he bought and sold musical instruments in New York City. He married Sarah Todd in 1785. Together, the pair had eight children. Three were stillborn or died as infants, and his eldest son, John Jacob Astor Jr., was labeled as feeble minded. He required around-the-clock care.Fascination With FurBeaver fur became Astors ticket to greatness. Source: Napa via Wikimedia CommonsOn the trip over from Europe, Astor met a fur trader who had piqued his interest in the growing fur trade in America. He saw opportunity in the business, and began studying the ins and outs of the trade. He memorized trade routes, learned how the market worked, and considered how he might use the fur economy to benefit his personal wealth. He took the plunge and opened his own fur shop in 1786. His business was boosted by the signing of Jays Treaty in 1794. The treaty settled several disputes between America and Great Britain that had been left unresolved by the Revolutionary War. It created regular trade between the two countries, opening a new market for Astors furs. By 1800, he had amassed a fortune that equaled over six million dollars today.Though Astor was seeing success, this triumph was at risk. The traditional American fur trapping areas of New York and the Atlantic seaboard were becoming depleted of furs. Astor began looking west to the Michigan Territory, which would become the heart of his American Fur Company, founded in 1808. As he became more comfortable in the business world, Astor wasnt afraid to take risks that would potentially benefit his business. American Fur Company products were sold all over the world, and Astor didnt hesitate to move to a different market if he wasnt satisfied with his profits. He knew that beaver hats and other fur attire were popular in Europe, but thought about other business opportunities as he moved his business endeavors west.Opium became an added source of income for Astor. Source: KGM007 via Wikimedia CommonsThough the Chinese werent utilizing fur fashion, they could use the pelts for warmth in uninsulated homes. As a bonus, on the return trips, he could bring back tea from China, which was in demand in America. Astor later found that there was another, even more popular product he could bring to Chinaopium. Astor smuggled the illicit substance, and he sent ships to Turkey and the Persian Gulf, becoming a dominant player in the opium trade of the period.The Great Lakes region became a boon to Astors fur trade, and he established agents throughout the Northwest. His headquarters were located in New York, where he spent most of his time, but he also traveled frequently to his companys outposts in the wilderness. Mackinac Island, located in Lake Huron between Michigans upper and lower peninsulas, became the hub for most of the American Fur Companys physical operations. Here, the companys furs were taken in, packed, and sent eastward.A Different Way of Doing BusinessAstor opened new markets. Source: G&C Franke Collection via Wikimedia CommonsAstor organized his company as a representation of one of Americas earliest corporations. He utilized vertical integration and divided labor effectively, taking advantage of specialization. One of these specialist roles was perhaps the most important-the fur traders themselves. Astors traders didnt wait for Native American tribes, who supplied many of the industrys furs, to come to them, instead, they established relationships, often living within the tribes themselves. This way of doing business was in stark contrast to other companies, including the US government that was attempting to capitalize on furs. This built an understanding of trust between the tribes and the company, creating consistency.Astor further bolstered these transactions by trading quality supplies at a respectable rate. He used his foreign trade relationships to buy goods wholesale and cheaper than in the American market, saving the company money without compromising on the quality of the goods it was offering in trade.Employees were rewarded based on merit. Managers earned a percentage of profits on top of their salaries, and well-compensated employees improved the companys operations. By 1808, Astors company became the leading fur exporter in the United States and gathered a larger share of the trade as time went on. He employed over 750 men, not accounting for the Native American suppliers, by the 1820s. The American Fur Company became the largest US fur provider and one of the largest and most profitable businesses in the country.Real Estate MogulAn image of Astor from Centennial History of Oregon. Source: Centennial History of Oregon via Wikimedia CommonsAstor didnt hesitate to diversify. He began investing in real estate, first in New York, where he bought and sold numerous parcels, including what is now Times Square. Once Lewis and Clark finished their expedition, he continued to invest in his westward vision, purchasing land in Oregon, where a settlement named Astoria and a fort were established.By 1830, Astor held a monopoly on the fur trade, but competition was swiftly rising, and available furs declined. Astor sold his fur business and focused solely on real estate, including residential tenements, which his second son, William Backhouse Astor, supervised. At one point, the family owned 3 percent of all of the land in New York City, a city of 50,000 at the time. The neighborhood of Astoria, in Queens, is named for Astor. He not only purchased property but invested in businesses, including the Park Theatre, the Astor House Hotel, and the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad. Without Astor and with a declining market, the American Fur Company went bankrupt and dissolved in 1842.The Richest Man in AmericaJohn Jacob Astor by John Wesley Jarvis. Source: National Portrait Gallery via Wikimedia CommonsBy the time Astor died in 1848, aged 84, he was considered to hold the greatest wealth in America. He left an endowment to build the Astor Library in New York City, which later became a component of the New York Public Library. Otherwise, the bulk of his wealth was left to his son, William. Despite his wealth, Astor had personal struggles. He faced depression and spent time isolated from his family. Sarah, who had been by his side as he built his success, died in 1834.John Jacob Astors LegacyJohn Jacob Astor IV. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia CommonsAstors descendants continued to follow in his footsteps. William invested in real estate like his father had, contributing to the establishment of over 700 buildings in New York City alone. He was also involved in philanthropy. Two of Williams sons, John Jacob III and William Jr., were also developers and philanthropists, and his grandsons, John Jacob IV and William Waldorf, were involved in the building of the famed Waldorf-Astoria hotel. William Waldorf Astor eventually moved to England, spreading the familys influence across the pond, where a branch of the family still thrives today.John Jacob IV, also an inventor and writer, gained unfortunate fame when he perished in the Titanic disaster, his body being identified by his watch and initials embroidered onto his clothing. His pregnant wife survived the catastrophe and later gave birth to John Jacob V. His son from a previous marriage, William Vincent, known as Jack, was 18 when his father died. Thus, he inherited approximately 168 million dollars. Though the Astors had always engaged in at least a small amount of philanthropy, Jack took it to the next level, donating to the arts, hospitals, higher education, and public attractions.The original Waldorf-Astoria in its original New York location. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJohn Jacob Astor may have come from nothing, but his legacy is quite the opposite. Leaving his name on places and history, Astor cultivated success that persisted into future generations of Astors. The legacy of his business genius is admired and serves as an example of good business sense. He and his bloodline impacted not just the early American economy but altered it on a global level.

During the 15th century, as armies of the Ottoman Empire carved their way through southeastern Europe, Skanderbeg was one of the most famous men on the continent. An Albanian nobleman who began his career as an Ottoman commander, Skanderbeg raised the flag of rebellion and brought together the Albanian lords under his banner. A skilled warrior and diplomat who knew how to make use of limited resources, Skanderbeg won remarkable victories and held back the Ottoman tide for a quarter century.Lord of AlbaniaSkanderbeg National Monument, Lezh, Albania. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2024. Source: Jimmy ChenOn March 2, 1444, a group of lords from present-day Albania gathered at the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in the ancient city of Lezh, then under Venetian rule. Since the mid-14th century, the armies of the Ottoman Empire had been conquering their way through the Balkan peninsula. Faced with overwhelming military force, many Albanian nobles submitted to Ottoman rule in the early 15th century. Those who attempted to resist the Ottomans often found themselves facing Ottoman armies commanded by fellow Albanians.With Venetian permission if not encouragement, the Albanian lords formed an alliance known as the League of Lezh and chose as their leader a man named Skanderbeg, who until very recently had been fighting for the Ottomans and owed his name to the Turks. Skanderbeg, whose Albanian name was Gjergj Kastrioti, henceforth referred to himself as Lord of Albania. He was a talented military commander and an inspired choice as leader of the Albanian resistance.Over the next 25 years, Skanderbeg would achieve renown throughout Europe as he inflicted a string of defeats upon much larger Ottoman armies. His success on the battlefield at the head of an army that rarely exceeded 20,000 men won him diplomatic support from the Pope and other rulers in Italy. Although his battle record was not faultless and his allies were prone to deserting him, Skanderbeg ensured that the Ottomans would not subjugate Albania as long as he lived, winning crucial time for Italian and central European states to strengthen their defenses.Iskander BeySultan Murad II. Source: Istanbul Museum of Military History (Photograph by Jimmy Chen)Gjergj Kastrioti was born in 1405 as the youngest son of Gjon Kastrioti, an Albanian lord who ruled over parts of northeastern Albania. As the Venetians, Serbians, and Ottomans vied for control of the region, Gjon regularly switched his political and religious allegiances. In the process, he expanded the family domains and served as lord of Kruj, a mighty hilltop fortress some 20 miles north of Tirana, the capital of modern Albania.Under the Ottoman system, it was common for the sultans Balkan vassals to send one or more of their sons as hostages to be educated at the Ottoman court. Since the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, most Balkan lords paid nominal fealty to the Ottomans, and in 1409, Gjon may have sent his eldest son, Stanisha, to the Ottoman sultan. While Skanderbegs early biographers claimed that Gjergj was sent to the Ottoman court in Edirne as a child, he does not appear to have entered Ottoman service until the 1420s, after Sultan Murad II came to power following a civil war and renewed Ottoman offensives in the Balkans. In 1430, the Ottomans sacked much of Gjon Castriotis domain as he attempted to maintain neutrality between the Venetians and the Turks.According to the traditional narrative set out by Skanderbegs earliest biographer, Marin Barleti, Gjergj Kastrioti demonstrated his military abilities and was given the noble title of Iskander Bey or Lord Alexander with reference to Alexander the Great. There are few documentary records of Skanderbegs service in the Ottoman army, but in 1438, the Ottomans granted him a portion of his fathers land, presumably shortly after Gjons death.Scourge of the TurksSkanderbeg and his Army, Skanderbeg National Museum, Kruj, Albania. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2024. Source: Jimmy ChenIn early November 1443, an allied Serbo-Hungarian army captured the Ottoman stronghold of Ni in southern Serbia. Skanderbeg used the opportunity to desert the Ottomans. He led 300 men to Kruj and took possession of the fortress on November 28. As the Ottoman forces retreated for the winter, Skanderbeg occupied a string of Ottoman fortifications up to Svetigrad on the Albanian-Macedonian border.Portrait of Skanderbeg by Cristofano dellAltissimo, c. 1552-1568. Source: WikiquoteAfter forming the League of Lezh, Skanderbeg prepared to confront a renewed invasion by Murad II in the spring of 1444. On June 29, the two armies met at the Plain of Torvioll in eastern Albania, where Skanderbeg enticed the enemy to launch a frontal assault before sending in his cavalry concealed amongst the woods on the Ottoman flank and rear. Skanderbegs victory brought him to international attention and encouraged Pope Eugenius II to devise a plan to evict the Ottomans from Europe. However, Jnos Hunyadis Hungarian army was defeated in November after the neutral Serbian ruler prevented Skanderbeg from joining his ally.Having regained the initiative, Murad offered Skanderbeg autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, but the Albanian leader refused and defeated two further Ottoman invasions in 1445 and 1446. Skanderbegs success threatened Venetian interests in Albania. In 1447-48, the two parties fought a brief war that was ended by a peace agreement in October 1448, which formally recognized the Albanian League as an independent entity. However, the Venetians refused to supply troops for Skanderbeg in his continued fight against the Ottomans.A Desperate SiegeKruj Castle (Skanderbeg National Museum), Kruj, Albania. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2024. Source: Jimmy ChenAfter making peace with Venice, Skanderbeg was free to lead his troops to raid Ottoman Macedonia. Such incursions could not fail to provoke a response from the sultan, who was now convinced that he would have to lead the Ottoman army in person to defeat the rebellious Albanians. In May 1449, Murad appeared beneath the walls of Svetigrad and prepared to lay siege to the fortress. The sultans army was far larger than any Ottoman force Skanderbeg had faced before, and the Albanian commander waited until June 22 before launching a surprise night attack. While Skanderbeg got away after securing a tactical victory, Svetigrad was running low on water and surrendered to the sultan.The loss of Svetigrad was a bitter blow to the Albanians, and Skanderbeg retreated to his base at Kruj to strengthen his defenses. The sultan had returned to Edrine for the winter but was back to lead an army of up to 160,000 men against Kruj in the spring of 1550. With fewer than 10,000 men at his disposal, Skanderbeg left the dependable Vrana Konti in command of Krujs garrison and used a mobile cavalry force to carry out hit-and-run attacks against the Ottoman camp. After several failed attempts to take Kruj, Murad made diplomatic overtures, which were rebuffed. On October 26, Murad lifted the siege and returned to Edirne. After gaining this respite, in May 1451, Skanderbeg married Andronika Arianiti, the daughter of his ally Gjergj Arianiti, a powerful lord in southern Albania.Confronting Mehmed the ConquerorSultan Mehmed II the Conqueror. Source: Istanbul Museum of Military History (Photograph by Jimmy Chen)Murad II died in January 1451 and was succeeded by his son Mehmed II, an ambitious 19-year-old keen to prove himself. Although he had accompanied his father in his recent campaigns against Albania, Mehmed set his sights on conquering Constantinople, the capital of the fading Byzantine Empire. While Ottoman artillery had been too unreliable to bring down the walls of Kruj, Mehmed cast the largest cannon at that point in history and used it to tear a hole through Constantinoples thick walls in 1453. Mehmed entered Constantinople on May 29, thus earning himself the sobriquet Mehmed the Conqueror.Although the Fall of Constantinople was recognized as a calamity in Western Christendom, Mehmeds preoccupation with the imperial city gave Skanderbeg respite to rebuild the Albanian League, of which several members had either become neutral or sought protection with Venice. In March 1451, Skanderbeg agreed to become the vassal of King Alfonso of Naples, who also ruled over the Spanish kingdom of Aragon. Alfonso signed similar agreements with other Albanian lords, effectively reconstituting the League of Lezh.Berat Castle, Berat, Albania. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2024. Source: Jimmy ChenIn July 1455, with Mehmed distracted in Serbia, Skanderbeg took 12,000 Albanians and 2,000 Neapolitans with siege artillery to besiege the strategic city of Berat in southern Albania. Skanderbegs brother-in-law Teodor Muzaka, whose family traditionally ruled Berat, accepted the Ottoman garrisons offer to surrender within eleven days if no help had come. In the meantime, Skanderbeg rode away from Berat, searching for the enemy. In his absence, an Ottoman cavalry force under the command of veteran general Isak Bey ambushed Muzaka, killing him and most of his men.The defeat at Berat was exacerbated by the defection of Skanderbegs ally Moisi Arianti during the battle, while others exited the League once again. The following spring, Moisi led an Ottoman army against Skanderbeg and was defeated, prompting him to return to his old friends side. A much more serious blow was the desertion of his nephew Hamza Castrioti in 1457.Hamza, the son of Skanderbegs eldest brother, Stanisha, had a claim to the Castrioti lands and resented his uncles power and fame. In May 1457, Hamza Castrioti and Isak Bey led an army of 50,000-80,000 men into Albania. In response, Skanderbeg fell back from the frontier and seemingly disappeared. With his whereabouts unknown, the Ottomans were cautious about marching on Kruj and set up camp at Albulena at the foot of Mount Tumenishta. On September 2, the Ottoman army concluded that Skanderbegs men had deserted him and prepared to march on Kruj. In reality, Skanderbeg had divided his forces into small columns, which marched separately towards the vicinity of Albulena. As the Ottomans broke camp, Skanderbegs men launched their attack and routed the enemy. Hamza was taken into captivity, and the Albanians inflicted up to 30,000 casualties on the Turks.A Renewed Crusade?Depiction of Pope Pius II at the Piccolomini Library in Siena Cathedral by Pinturicchio, c. 1507. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Battle of Albulena was one of Skanderbegs greatest victories, but his cause was undermined by the death of his overlord, King Alfonso of Naples, in 1458. The succession of Alfonsos illegitimate son, King Ferrante, was challenged by rival Italian princes, and the new king requested help from his Albanian vassal. In the spring of 1461, Skanderbeg dutifully agreed to a three-year truce with the Ottomans and sailed to Ferrantes aid in August. The arrival of the Albanians turned the tables in Ferrantes favor since the Italian mercenary armies were afraid of doing battle with the fearsome Skanderbeg. After five months, Skanderbeg left Italy in February 1462 with Ferrante secure on his throne.By the time Skanderbeg returned home, preparations were underway for a crusade against the Ottomans planned by Pope Pius II. The Ottoman advance into Bosnia in 1463 galvanized the Venetians into action, and that September, Skanderbeg signed an alliance with Venice. He was to attack the Ottomans in Macedonia, while the Hungarians were to move on Bosnia from the north and the Venetians on Greece in the south. Despite a promising start in 1464, the Pope died on August 14 while preparing to sail across the Adriatic to take command of the crusading armies. The crusade died with him, and the Hungarians and Albanians were left to fend for themselves.Skanderbegs Final YearsSkanderbeg Monument, Kruj, Albania. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2024. Source: Jimmy ChenIn 1465, Sultan Mehmed ordered another campaign against Albania. He placed 18,000 men under the command of Balaban Pasha, the son of an Albanian farmer from the Castrioti lands who had grown up as a hostage at the Ottoman court. In April, Skanderbeg took the offensive and attacked Balaban at Valcalia near Ohrid in western Macedonia. Although the Albanians won the battle, it was a costly victory as Balaban had warned his men what to expect. As a result of stiffer-than-expected Turkish resistance, eight senior Albanian generals were captured and later executed. While Skanderbeg repulsed a renewed offensive by Balaban later in the year, it was little consolation for the loss of his lieutenants.In 1466, Sultan Mehmed personally led an invasion force of some 100,000 men into Albania. As they advanced along the Roman Via Egnatia, the Ottomans pillaged the surrounding countryside. Mehmed established a permanent settlement called Elbasan and used it as his base for siege operations against Kruj. The Venetians were alarmed by this development and gave Skanderbeg some 15,000 men. With some 30,000 men at his disposal, Skanderbeg broke the ring of Ottoman strongpoints around Kruj and killed Balaban in April 1467. After failing to capture Elbasan, Skanderbeg was desperate for further assistance, and in January 1468, he returned to Lezh to consult with the Venetians. He was desperately ill and died on January 17, 1468 at the age of 63. His body was buried at the Cathedral of St. Nicholas, where the League of Lezh was founded 24 years earlier.Albanian National HeroSkanderbeg Monument, Tirana, Albania. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2024. Source: Jimmy ChenFollowing Skanderbegs death, the Albanian League survived for another decade until Kruj fell to the Ottomans on June 16, 1478. Later that year, the Ottomans conquered Lezh and desecrated Skanderbegs tomb. While Albania would remain under Turkish rule until 1912, the Skanderbeg legend was born in 1504 when the Jesuit priest Marin Barleti published his influential biography of Skanderbeg.Over the centuries, Skanderbegs legacy continued to inspire Europeans resisting Ottoman invasions of central Europe, as well as those who wished to see the Balkans liberated from Ottoman rule. In the assessment of 18th century English general James Wolfe, Skanderbeg excels all the officers, ancient and modern, in the conduct of a small defensive army.While Skanderbegs international fame declined with the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century, the Albanian nationalist movement embraced him as their countrys national hero. He continued to be popular during the communist era, and an equestrian monument of Skanderbeg was erected in the central square of Tirana in 1968 upon the 500th anniversary of his death. The Skanderbeg National Memorial was built around the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in Lezh and completed in 1981.

As the push for independence swept through the Spanish colonies, it was largely led by criollospeople of pure Spanish heritage born in the New World. Yet the land and opportunities available in the Americas drew European immigrants of various backgrounds. Though strict Spanish class divisions made upward mobility difficult for those not of pure Spanish blood, there were exceptionsperhaps none more notable than the illegitimate son of an Irish immigrant who led Chile to independence and became its first post-monarchy leader: Bernardo OHiggins.Early LifePortrait of Bernardo OHiggins holding the Chilean Constitution by Jos Gil de Castro, 1821. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBernardo OHiggins unlikely path to liberating Chile from Spanish rule began in 1778 when he was born in Chilln, Chile. OHiggins was the product of an affair between Isabel Riquelme, teenage daughter of a wealthy landowner, and the much older Ambrosio OHiggins, who never married. The elder OHiggins was born in Ireland and had moved to Spain in his 30s before ultimately traveling to the Spanish colonies and joining the ranks of the Spanish army. He did not formally recognize Bernardo as his son, but did provide for his upbringing. As a result, Bernardo originally used his mothers last name. He was raised by her family as well as various friends and contacts of Ambrosio before moving to Lima, Peru and then, in 1791, to Cdiz, Spain and London to pursue an education.In 1801, Ambrosio, who had ultimately become the Viceroy of Peru (which included present-day Chile) withdrew his support from Bernardo, who he accused of sedition and conspiracy, presumably due to some of the anti-monarchy contacts he had made while in Europe. Yet, later that same year, he formally recognized his son on his deathbed, leaving him a large estate, las Canteras, near Chiles frontier with Mapuche territory. Bernardo, who was at this point penniless and struggling in Spain after nearly dying of yellow fever, then returned to Chile as a new member of the landed class.Spanish Colonies: Independence FeverMap of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Source: World History EncyclopediaBy the early 19th century, the Spanish Empire, stretching from the present-day southwestern United States to the southern tip of South America, was starting to show cracks. As in the US just a few decades earlier, citizens were growing frustrated with trade restrictions and taxes imposed by the monarchy, coupled with the crowns dismissal of criollos in favor of pure Spaniards from Europe when it came to positions of power in the colonies.As Spain fought its own wars of succession in the 18th century and then became embroiled in Napoleons European wars, it necessarily altered and then lessened its presence in the colonies. When Napoleon invaded Spain and imprisoned its king, management of the entire empire fell into chaos. Colonists felt no loyalty to Joseph Bonaparte, who Napoleon had put on the throne, and could no longer rely on the Spanish government to help administer the colonies. While there was not yet a powerful movement advocating complete independence from Spain, a number of colonies formed juntas to govern in the kings absence; it spelled the beginning of the end for Spanish rule.OHiggins Rise to FameBattle of El Roble, 1813. Source: Government of ChileDuring his time in Europe, OHiggins had connected with Francisco de Miranda, Venezuelas independence leader, and other radicals of the time who were advocating the colonies independence from Spain. On his return to Chile, he maintained contact with many such rebels who had since moved to Buenos Aires, continuing to develop his liberal ideals and support for colonial independence.OHiggins earliest days on the continent were spent organizing affairs at his new estate. Though he had no title due to the circumstances of his birth, he still had his fathers name and connections, which led him into positions of authority rather quickly. In 1805, he was named mayor of Chilln and established a friendship with an important political figure, Juan Martnez de Rosas, who would become his mentor. Acting as Martnez de Rosas representative, OHiggins began participating in the newly established junta government in 1810.As Spanish rule floundered, Chiles ruling class quickly divided into three camps: extremistsultimately patriotswho wanted complete independence, moderates who favored a slower pace of reforms and the maintenance of some connection with Spain, and royalists who remained loyal to the crown and preferred to uphold the status quo. Ultimately the extremists won out, but not without drawing the attention of the Spanish leadership in the Viceroyalty of Peru, which moved to bring Chile into line.When the Spanish invaded Chile, OHiggins took up arms. Though he had no formal military training, he quickly stood out among other officers for fighting alongside his men. In particular, his refusal to retreat at the Battle of El Roble in 1813, when Jos Miguel Carrera, leader of the patriot cause, fled, was heralded by the rebels. OHiggins won the battleas well as a new enemy in Carrera when many patriots looked to OHiggins as their new leader.Liberating ChileBattle of Chacabuco. Source: Government of ChileAfter a number of losses, new troops from Lima arrived and the Spanish royalist forces retook Chile. OHiggins and the other patriot leaders were exiled to Mendoza, in present day Argentina, but had no plans to give up the cause. Jos de San Martn, famed hero of the continents wars of independence, was leading Argentinas patriots at that time and viewed OHiggins, rather than Carrera, as leader of the Chilean rebels. Together they planned to retake Chile by bringing the Army of the Andes across the mountain range to join Chilean patriots and engage the royalists, a monumental task.In 1817, they succeeded in traversing the treacherous Andes, though they lost many men as well as horses to the terrain, freezing temperatures, and illness. Undeterred, on February 12, the approximately 3,500 rebels encountered the 2,000-strong royalist army in Chacabuco, just north of Santiago, and won. Histories diverge slightly at this point, with some historians claiming that San Martn declined the position of Supreme Director and suggested OHiggins in his stead while other scholars suggest the patriots themselves insisted the new Chilean leader be Chilean. Whatever the truth, OHiggins was named Supreme Director, the highest position in the fledgling nation, while the war raged on.Royalist forces, particularly in the southern part of the country, still needed to be quashed, so both San Martn and OHiggins continued to fight. After one particularly violent battle, in which OHiggins was shot in the elbow, rumors spread that both rebel leaders had been killed. OHiggins, still recovering from his injury, hurried back to Santiago to stave off any other patriots who might have their sights on ruling in his stead. On the one-year anniversary of the victory in Chacabuco, OHiggins formally declared Chiles independence, though skirmishes with remaining royalists and Spanish troops continued.Founding a NationPortrait of OHiggins rival, Jos Miguel Carrera. Source: Government of ChileThough Chile had declared itself an independent nation, the continued presence of the Spanish authority in Lima was a thorn in OHiggins side; he felt that independence couldnt be assured as long as that threat lingered. Though the country he now ruled was essentially in ruins after years of war, OHiggins largely focused his early leadership on efforts to establish a naval force to counter the Spanish and depose the Viceroy, which San Martn succeeded in doing in 1821.Domestically, OHiggins embarked on various reform projects, hoping to rebuild Chile into a modern, less-stratified society. He built primary schools, reopened the national library and created a military training school. He established trade relations with European nations in the hopes of refilling the nations coffers and encouraging immigration to Chile.However, some of his reforms won the ire of the aristocracy, particularly the abolishment of primogeniture and noble titles. He may also have played a role in the execution of his rival Carrera and his brothers, all of whom tried to overthrow or derail OHiggins rule, though it was never proven. As the country rebuilt, he continued to be plagued by challenges and threats from Carreras supporters, remaining royalists, the elites, and the Catholic church. In addition, Chiles financial situation was slow to improve, forcing him to take on the nations first foreign debt, a loan from England.Though a resurgence of Spanish forces was no longer a danger, OHiggins rule was now threatened from within. As he lost support, the country neared civil war, and former allies moved against him. Rather than fight another battle, OHiggins decided to step down. In 1823, he fled to Peru with his mother, half-sister, and illegitimate son, Demetrio.LegacyBust of Bernardo OHiggins in front of the Chilean Embassy in Washington DC. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOHiggins spent the rest of his life in Peru, living in relative obscurity on land he was given as a thank you for helping win the countrys independence. He was briefly in contact with famed liberator Simn Bolvar, who requested his assistance in fighting the Spanish, but when he joined Bolvars forces, he found no leadership role available to him and soon returned to his quiet life in Peru.When patriot forces did retake Peru, OHiggins attended a celebratory ball where he toasted Bolvar and declared, America is free. From now on General OHiggins does not exist; I am only Bernardo OHiggins, a private citizen. Tragically, when he was finally granted permission to return to Chile and began making plans to do so, he fell ill. He died on October 24, 1842, still in Lima; in 1869 his remains were returned to Chile.Today, OHiggins is considered one of Chiles founding fathers, and his accomplishments are honored in his home country and beyond. While Chile has graced everything from towns to national parks to military bases with his name, statues and sculptures of the revolutionary can be found throughout South America and as far away as England and Ireland. Though his years in power were short, his pivotal role in winning his countrys independence and early attempts to modernize its society have never been forgotten.

The Silk Road was a major, intercontinental trading route that operated for several thousand years. Stretching from China to the Mediterranean, this ancient road acted as a conduit to transfer spices, tea, and silks across massive landmasses. Throughout the process, travelers on the Silk Road spread different ideas and religions to the destinations they visited.Today, you can travel to many cities on the ancient Silk Road and discover the important place they had in the past and how they look in modernity.1. TehranGolestan Palace at Tehran, Iran. Source: IStockModern-day Tehran shared a strategic location with Rhages, which was one of the major Silk Road trading hubs. All sorts of goods, like Persian handicrafts and silk, and rare spices like saffron, traveled along it.Today, Tehran is the capital of Iran and the cultural heart of the country. Visit to see places like the Grand Bazaar, where you can get a taste of what the Silk Road was like, and the Golestan Palace, a UNESCO site and architectural marvel.2. XianThe Museum of Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses in Xian, China. Source: Wikimedia Commons.Xian, China, is one of the most fascinating spots on the Silk Road that you can visit today. This city was home to thirteen different Chinese dynasties and was once known as Changan, an important jumping-off point for people distributing porcelain, paper, and tea westward, as well as Buddhism.Today, you can visit Xian and see some fantastic relics from the Qin Dynasty, like the Terracotta Army and the ancient Xian city walls.3. CairoThe Saladin Citadel, Cairo. Source: WikipediaCairo, Egypt, is most notable for its fantastic pyramids, monuments, and ancient art, and it was also one of the most important parts of the Silk Road for uniting the Mediterranean with Africa. Major exports included linen and papyrus, and the citizens of Cairo benefited from silk and jewels from Asia.Visitors can visit the ancient pyramids of Giza and check out the Khan el-Khalili, where they can bring home some impressive local souvenirs.4. DelhiThe garden of the Red Fort in Delhi, India. Source: IStockThere are plenty of places to love in Delhi, India, and it was also an essential cultural hotspot during the time of the Silk Road. Silk and spice poured in from Asia, and cotton, indigo, and fine textiles left Delhi for the north.Visit Delhi today and see the famous Mughal Red Fort, or browse through the Chandni Chowk Bazaar, where you can haggle and find yourself some treasures.5. TbilisiAerial Picture of Tbilisi. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGeorgias ancient capital, Tbilisi, was a major spot on the Silk Road and one of the most important hubs in the Caucasus Mountains. Tbilisi exported local precious metals and wine, and theyre still famous for their vintages today.In addition to enjoying a delicious glass of Saperavi wine, visitors can wander through the maze of streets that makes up Old Tbilisi, hike to Narikala Fortress, and see some world-class theater.6. IstanbulThe Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. Source: Unsplash/Mark KonigIstanbul, Turkey, sits on two continents, Europe and Asia, and its full of historic gems. Its strategic position made it an ideal waypoint on the Silk Road. Famous Turkish carpets, spices, and silks traveled north from Istanbul during the Silk Roads heyday.Today, you can experience a bit of Turkish culture at the Grand Bazaar or see some of the citys incredible mosques, like Hagia Sophia.7. AthensMonastiraki Square and the Acropolis Hill, Athens. Source: Pexels/Jimmy TeohAthens, Greece, is a world-renowned city and an integral part of the Silk Road on the Mediterranean. Olive oil, marble, and ancient Greek knowledge, religion, and philosophy flowed out of Athens, spreading throughout the rest of Europe.Today, this destination is famous for its ancient history and host of UNESCO-recognized sites like the Acropolis.8. VeniceView over the Venice canals. Source: Unsplash/Brittany ChastagVenice, Italy, is a well-loved spot for art enthusiasts and once was one of Europes most important spots on the Silk Road. Spices and porcelain flowed into Venice, and wool and glass left the city, en route to faraway places in Africa and Asia.Visiting Venices museums is the number-one activity in the city, but you can also see Rialto Bridge and Market, an ancient trading post, to get a small experience of what the Silk Road must have been like.9. BeirutBeirut from above. Source: Unsplash/Piotr ChrobotAs one of the major Silk Road routes on the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut, Lebanon, was a major player in ancient international trade. They exported goods like textiles and dyes and imported perfumes and spices from Asia.Today, you can stroll along Beiruts incredible promenade and catch glimpses of the azure Mediterranean or wander through the souks. Beirut also has a fantastic national museum full of ancient artifacts.10. TashkentHazrat Imam Mosque in Tashkent Uzbekistan. Source: IStockTashkent, Uzbekistan, was one of Central Asias vital stops on the Silk Road. Spices, horses, and precious ceramics would flow out of Tashkent to places in Europe and Africa. They also had a cultural impact on the globe, exporting Islamic teachings and practices to different continents.Today, you can still experience the bustle of the Tashkent marketplace at Chorsu Bazaar or visit several religious sites, like the Khast Imam Complex.These fantastic destinations are all just an airplane ride away and allow you to walk in the footsteps of some of the most intrepid ancient travelers. Plus, you can still see some of the relics of the original Silk Road, visit ancient monuments and temples, and haggle at local markets to take home some memorable souvenirs of your own.If you liked this article, you may also enjoy learning about the 10 biggest cities of the Silk Road.

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