The Tudor rose is synonymous with the Tudor Era. It represents not only the royal house but also 118 years of British history. For nearly twelve decades, from 1485 until 1603, England was ruled by a string of five successful Tudor monarchs. The Tudor rosetheir symbol, emblem, or badgewas one of the essential pieces of imagery that identified a Tudor supporter or loyalist.In this article, we will attempt to uncover the finer details regarding the Tudor Rose. When and why was it commissioned and created? Where was it displayed in the 16th century, and finally, why is it still in regular use, even in the 21st?What Is the Tudor Rose?The Tudor rose royally crowned. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnyone with an interest in the 16th century will be familiar with the Tudor rose. It is one of the most distinctive flowers in the heraldry of the United Kingdom. The Tudor rose is not only a beautiful floral emblem but also a meaningful representation of peace and tranquillity in the kingdom. It is not only the heraldic badge of the House of Tudor but also a symbol that epitomized the joining of the Houses of Lancaster and York.To cut an extremely long story short, the royal houses of Lancaster and York were at war with each other for 30 years, from May 1455 until 1485. This ongoing conflictknown as the War of the Roses or occasionally as the Cousins Warended with the Battle of Bosworth Field, when the Lancastrian king, Henry VII, defeated the Yorkist king, Richard III. To further legitimize and promote his new rule, King Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, the daughter and niece of the former Yorkist monarchs, kings Edward IV and Richard III.By wedding Elizabeth of York, King Henry VII successfully united the warring houses forever. To mark the end of conflict and the beginning of a new and triumphant rule, King Henry commissioned a new badge and adopted it as his own. The Encyclopaedia Britannica explains that the Tudor Rose symbolized the union of Lancaster and York by representing the red rose of the Lancastrians superimposed upon the white rose of the Yorkists.Elizabeth of York, painted by Meynnart Wewyck, 16th century. Source: The Royal CollectionThe two heraldic imagesthe red rose and the whitewere no longer two separate symbols but one. The two flowers were joined together, their petals entwined, just as King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York were joined together in matrimony. The red represented King Henry, and the white represented Elizabeth. Any offspring they produced would be for neither Lancaster nor York, but Tudor.With this newly styled badge, King Henry VII secured his reputation as a peacemaker. The Tudor Rose became a reminder that it was he who ended the Wars of the Roses and brought good fortune to England and its people.Expert on heraldry, Adrian Ailes, tells us that King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York were living in an age when signs and symbols could speak louder than words.The Tudor Rose is now commonly referred to as the union rose. Since its creation 539 years ago, it has become the traditional floral emblem of England.Who Were King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York?A family portrait showing King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York alongside King Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, painted by Remigius van Leemput, 1667. Source: The Royal CollectionWho is the first figure that springs to mind when we think of the Tudor rose? Many members of the general public would name one of the most famous members of the Tudor family: King Henry VIII, Queen Elizabeth I, or maybe even Bloody Mary. This is not unreasonable at all, for all of these monarchs were considerably connected with the Tudor rose, and even used the flower as their official badge.However, as previously stated, the origins of the Tudor rose actually lay with King Henry VII. King Henry was the first Tudor monarch, and his reign spanned from 1485 until his death in 1509. He adopted the Tudor rose as his badge after his marriage to Elizabeth of York. This act was a mark of unification between two former enemies. King Henry VII represented the red rose, and Elizabeth of York represented the white.Despite the fact that their families had lately been engaged in a bloody, three-decade-long conflict, King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York got on surprisingly well. By all accounts, they grew to love each other deeply and were eventually extremely happy together.Together, King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York had seven children, of whom only three survived to the age of 18. They were Arthur Tudor (1486-1502), Margaret Tudor, queen of Scotland (1489-1541), Henry VIII, king of England (1491-1547), Elizabeth Tudor (1492-1495), Mary Tudor, queen of France (1496-1553), Edmund Tudor (1499-1500), and Catherine Tudor (1503-1503).King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York with their children, 1505-9. Source: The Royal CollectionIn 1502, Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales and heir to the throne died at the age of 15. His tomb in Worcester Cathedral was adorned with red and white roses, to mark his royal descent from both Lancaster and York.The blissful union of king and queen lasted 18 yearsit ended with the death of Elizabeth of York on February 11, 1503. She succumbed to childbed fever on her 37th birthday, just nine days after giving birth to a daughter, Princess Catherine.We are told by chroniclers that Queen Elizabeth, lying in the tower of London, was brought to bed on Candlemas Day of a fair daughter who was Christened and named Catherine, and on February the eleventh, the most virtuous Princess and gracious Queen there died, and was with all funeral pomp carried through the City of London to Westminster and there buried, whose daughter lived but a little time after her mother.Henry VII Tudor, 1505-9. Source: Wikimedia CommonsElizabeth of York is remembered for being one of the most royally connected women of her era. It would not be unrealistic to claim that she was one of the most royally connected women in British history. Rarely has there been a woman with so many strong relations to so many separate kings.Elizabeth of York was the daughter of a king (King Edward IV), the sister of a king (King Edward V), the niece of a king (King Richard III), the wife of a king (King Henry VII), and the mother of a future king (King Henry VIII). She was also the grandmother of three monarchs (King Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I). Even the current king of England, King Charles III, is a direct descendant of Elizabeth of York and King Henry VII.King Henry VII ruled England alone until his death on the twenty-first of April in 1509. His eldest surviving son, Henry Tudor, inherited the throne as King Henry VIII and carried the Tudor Rose with him into a new reign.The Tudor Rose and Its Heraldic DescriptionThe Heraldic symbol of the Tudor Rose. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSo, now that we know who the Tudor Rose represents and why it was created in the first place, we come to the question of what it looks like as a consequence.In heraldic terms, the Tudor Rose is usually described as a double rose gules and argent, barbed and seeded proper.The phrase double rose describes the shape and style of the emblem. The Tudor rose is one of the most famous examples of a double rose in British heraldry. To put it simply, a double rose is any rose with ten petals rather than five. The double rose possesses five additional inner petals that rest within the outer petals. Therefore, it is essentially a combination of two roses, one on top of the other. In the case of the Tudor rose it is the smaller white petals that rest within the larger red.The words gules and argent refer to the color of the emblem. In heraldry, shades are referred to as tinctures rather than colors. Gules is one of the five dark tincturesthe others are azure (blue), sable (black), vert (green), and purpure (purple). Gules signifies the color red. Argent, on the other hand, is one of the two metal tinctures. The firstargentsignifies silver, or more often white. The secondorsignifies gold or yellow.The Pelican Portrait, featuring the Tudor Rose on the left of Queen Elizabeth I, painted by Nicholas Hilliard, 1575. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonThe description barbed and seeded concerns the details. If a heraldic rose is seeded, it means that it possesses seeds in the center. If a heraldic rose is barbed, it means that it possesses leaves or foliage.The heraldic description of the Tudor Rose is completed with the word proper. This term describes any instance in which the colors or shapes are true to nature.Double rose gules and argent, barbed and seeded proper, could otherwise be rephrased as two intertwining roses, red and white, seeds and foliage included, presented as if naturally occurring in the wild.The Tudor Rose and Its Heraldic VariationsThe dimidiated badge of King James I of England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEven emblems as special as the Tudor rose have been reimagined and restyled many times throughout the centuries. One of the most popular ways in which the Tudor rose has been changed is through dimidiation. If a piece of heraldry has been dimidiated, it has been cut in half and combined with another symbol to form a new badge.There are many examples of the Tudor rose being dimidiated. One of which can be found in the emblem of Catherine of Aragon, the first wife and Queen of King Henry VIII. When she became Queen of England in June of 1509, she chose to split her badgethe Spanish pomegranatedown the middle and combine it with the badge of her husbandthe Tudor rose.Following his ascent to the English throne in 1603, King James VI of Scotland and I of England created a new badge for himself. His consisted of a Tudor rose dimidiated with a Scottish thistle and surmounted by a crown.The Tudor Rose slipped and crowned. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn occasion, a Tudor rose may also appear to be slipped. This means that it is supported by a stalk, and possibly even surrounded by a greater amount of leaves, branches, or sprigs of trees.The Tudor rose is also often royally crowned, which means that a crown sits atop the petals.Where to Find the Tudor Rose in the Modern EraThe coat-of-arms of the Yeomen of the Guard. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistory lovers will agree that Tudor roses can be found in abundance in Great Britain. The Tudor rose, especially in combination with other floral symbols, is an extremely common sight in towns and cities alike.So essential is the Tudor rose to the people of England that it forms part of the official badge of the United Kingdom. Scotland uses the thistle, Wales uses the Leek, Ireland uses the shamrock, and England uses the Tudor rose. These four symbols, when merged together, form the unmistakable floral coat-of-arms of the UK.This same coat of arms also acts as the contemporary badge of the Yeomen of the Guard. The Yeomen of the Guard are the official bodyguards of the British monarch. Interestingly, they are the oldest British military corps still in existence. Predictably, they were founded by King Henry VII himself, in 1485.More commonly, people recognize the same coat-of-arms as the one worn daily by the Yeomen Warders, or Beefeaters, who work at the Tower of London.On each of these versions of the coat-of-arms, the motto of the monarch of England sits beneath the rose. These words are Dieu Et Mon Droit, which translates from French to English as God and My Right.The Tudor rose is also used widely on British coinage. Most notably, a design of the emblem by William Gardner was used on the 20 pence piece, from 1982 until 2008.Visitors to England may be familiar with VisitEngland, the official tourist board. These visitors will know that the Tudor rose, alone rather than combined with any other emblem, acts as their official symbol.Over the last five centuries, the Tudor rose has by no means fallen out of use. It can still be spotted in a huge variety of unexpected locations if only you know where to look.

When it comes to colonial Colombia, two places dominate and receive by far the most visitors. Cartagena rightly hogs the spotlight, being one of the largest and grandest examples of Spanish colonial architecture in Latin America. La Candalaria, the old town of the countrys capitalBogotis also well-known thanks to its accessibility and well-preserved streets. Beyond the tourist trail, however, is a wealth of spectacular historic settlements that more than justify the effort of straying off the beaten path.1. Villa de LeyvaVilla de Leyvas main square, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantJust a few hours from Bogot, and nestled in an open valley, Villa de Leyva is one of Colombias most well-preserved colonial towns. Its cobbles are charmingly uneven, its storied buildings are painted a blinding white, its roofs are made from fading terracotta. It was home to revolutionary figures as well as ancient peoples who built mysterious monuments. Surrounded by a surprising diversity of spectacular natural landscapes, everything from dusty semi-desert to misty pramo can be found nearby.This was a significant place long before the Spanish arrived. Nearby are several well-preserved fossils of enormous marine animals that co-existed with the dinosaurs, proof that the area was once under water despite the towns altitude. Little is known about this regions early human history, but whoever occupied the valley two thousand years ago must have considered it important. Twenty minutes from Villa de Leyva is a site that the Spanish named El InfiernitoLittle Hell. The stone columns that make up the site are arranged to align with the movements of the sun, leading some to believe that it was used as some sort of calendar.A cobbled street in Villa de Leyva, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantAround the ninth century CE, the indigenous Muisca confederacy emerged, and this loose collection of chiefdoms controlled the high plateau from here to the south of Bogot. The Muisca considered lakes to be sacred places, and it is with them that the El Dorado myth has its origins. While conquistadors believed it to be a lost city of gold, El Dorado actually referred to a Muisca leader. This chief would be painted in gold dust before diving into Lake Guatavita between Bogot and Villa de Leyva. Iguaque Lagoon, high up in the mountains behind Villa de Leyva was also very important, being the place from which the ancestors of humanity were believed to have emerged.The Muisca chose not to settle here permanently, as their culture was semi-nomadic and the dry land was unsuitable for cultivation. The Spanish had no such issues, founding Villa de Leyva in 1572, and handing out land to ex-soldiers as a reward for their service. The military connection explains why the town has the biggest square in Colombiaa place was needed to practice maneuvers should the soldiers ever be needed again. Alongside the veterans, Villa de Leyva quickly attracted the Catholic Church, and its priests left their mark on the town. Behind a set of unassuming walls, the Claustro de San Francisco is a little oasis of tranquility and greenery. A statue of Jesus stands on the hill behind the town, providing spectacular views for those who climb up to visit.One of Villa de Leyvas perfectly preserved streets, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantVilla de Leyvas most famous inhabitant was Antonio Ricaurte, for whom the wider province is named. Ricaurte was born in the town, and after a career in colonial administration he joined the rebellion against Spanish rule. Fighting alongside Simn Bolvar, he died helping to liberate Venezuela. His family home has been turned into a museum, as has the house of another famous residentLuis Alberto Acua. While Fernando Botero may be Colombias most famous artist, Acua is well known within Colombia for his distinctive psychedelic style. A collection of his eye-catching works can be viewed at the Museo Luis Alberto Acua on the main square.2. BaricharaThe River Surez, viewed from Barichara, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantBarichara has not one, but two spectacular features that combine to create a town some call the most beautiful in Colombia. Its small historic streets are breathtakingly beautiful, but on top of this, they stop abruptly at one edge of town to give way to a dramatic and deep river valley. Its historic buildings are so well preserved that it is usually cited as the inspiration for Disneys film Encanto. The towns name means Place of Rest in the indigenous Guanes language, and this feels like an apt name. It is sleepy and relaxed, providing a refuge from the bustle of Colombias better-known destinations. Stone carving is historically a specialty of Baricharas townspeople, and this is reflected in the cobbles and facades of its quaint houses.Like Villa de Leyva, Baricharas history pre-dates humanity. The fossilized shells of creatures that lived millions of years ago demonstrate that it too was once a mecca for marine life. These fossils are so abundant that the curls of shells can be seen pressed into the buildings stone walls. Locals sell them to visitors from improvised stalls for just a few dollars. The Guane people, from whose language the towns name is derived disappeared soon after the conquest, so relatively little is known about them. It is thought that they were linked to the Musica and probably worshiped some of the same deities.Barichara was founded in 1705, three years after a man claimed to have witnessed an appearance of the Virgin Mary. Although the apparition was never officially recognized, the story was believed by the local population, and a church was built on the spot where it was said to have happened. The new inhabitants who arrived soon afterwards built their homes in the distinctive Andalusian style, as opposed to the grand Castilian fashion seen in other colonial towns. Baricharas greatest claim to fame came after the end of the colonial period. Colombias thirteenth president was born and raised in the town.A typical Barichara scene, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantBarichara is at one end of the Camino Realpart of the network of Indigenous paths that crossed this region and was adopted by the Spanish authorities to enable local transportation. Today, it is possible to walk a picturesque section of the road from Barichara down into the valley, to the smaller and almost as beautiful village of Guanes. The route weaves through picturesque little farms bounded by dry-stone walling, the original cobbles still forming the path underfoot.3. GirnThe Streets of Girn, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantLike Villa de Leyva and Barichara, Girns importance waned once Colombia had gained independence, which is why these towns are so well-preserved. Girn was overshadowed by its previously unimportant neighbor Bucaramanga, and today it is a suburb of a much larger city. Its historic streets are no less beautiful, but its busyness gives it a different feel. Many of Girns oldest buildings are still lived in, making it a truly authentic Colombian town. Its streets bustle with workers and children on their way to and from school, while its restaurants are squarely aimed at locals rather than tourists.The old town is intersected by a network of small canals, and some of the quaint little bridges that cross them are hundreds of years old. Windows are protected by intricately carved wooden grates, and the same material has been used to construct the balconies that overlook the streets. Almost every corner offers a new picture-perfect moment in the form of an explosion of bougainvillea overhanging a whitewashed wall, or a church steeple framed by the hills behind.Girn had a troubled birth, being founded three separate times. In 1631, while on a campaign of conquest, Francisco Mantilla established the town but was quickly ordered to abandon it. A rival settlement, Pamplona, had already claimed the land and argued that he was encroaching on their territory. Mantilla disputed this, but suddenly died in the middle of the court session called to resolve the issue. His cousin moved Girn to a new site 16 miles to the west, but the new settlement was plagued by disease. It was moved once again in 1638 to occupy its present site.Girns whitewashed streets, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantThe town also played a role in the end of the colonial era. Colombias independence would come in 1819 when Simn Bolvar entered the country from Venezuela and eventually liberated it. The initial declarations of independence took place in 1810 however, when towns across the nation announced their rejection of Spanish rule. Girn was one of these rebellious settlements, and the building within which their declaration of independence was signed has been converted into a museum and restaurant. This is one of the towns primary attractions, alongside the Parque de los Nieves, and the Baslica Menor del Seor de los Milagros. The wider region is also home to several attractions. Easily visited from Girn is the spectacular Chichimocha Canyon, which reaches a depth of 2,000 meters (6,600 feet) and a length of 141 miles, making it the second largest in the world.4. PopaynLa Ermita chapel, Popayn, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantWhile still only a regional center, Popayn is the most important of the towns listed here. In fact, as one of the oldest cities in Colombia, it has always occupied an important place for the nations inhabitants. This part of Colombia has a deep Indigenous history, and Popayn is a necessary stop on the route to the mysterious statues of San Agustn. An unknown indigenous people built a pyramid at the place which would become PopaynEl Morro del Tulcnand this still sits on the edge of the citys historic core. Little excavation work has been done, and today it is a steep grassy mound that provides sweeping views of the city. It is still a contested space however, and in 2020 the Misak Indigenous people pulled down a statue of the conquistador Sebastin de Belalczar as an act of protest.It was Belalczar who founded the city in 1537, having been placed in charge of Quito by Pizarro during his conquest of the Inca. Belalczars ambitions extended beyond being a minor player in the conquest, and he marched north to claim Colombia for himself, founding Popayn as he did so. Much of the wealth looted from the Inca and extracted from the silver mines in the Andes was shipped to Spain through Cartagena in Colombias north. Popayn profited from being an important stop on this route.A street in Popayns historic center, 2022. Source: Max SerjeantPopayns importance throughout the colonial period and right up through today means that its historic center is bigger than the other towns on this list, and its architecture is more baroque. It possesses an enormous number of significant buildings, despite periods of destruction caused by earthquakes. Among its most important religious constructions are the churches of San Francisco and Santo Domingo, as well as La Ermita chapelone of the oldest in Colombia. Today the cathedral is an imposing building, but it began life as a simple straw hut during the earliest days of settlement. Alongside these are various palaces and theaters, as well the buildings that make up the University of Cauca. Founded in 1827, this is among the oldest and most prestigious universities in the country. The character of the city is still very much influenced by the large student population, and it is home to lively political and nightlife scenes.

For anyone interested in Italian history and Renaissance art, the Medici family is a mandatory part of their studies. Besides leaving their mark on the political and cultural life of Florence and Europe, they managed to rule Florence, more or less successfully, without a crown for around 300 years. Using schemes and master plans, they extended and disseminated their presence at almost every European court. Some of their members were talented politicians, businessmen, queens, and popes! This article will explore the most prominent members of the Medici family.1. Giovanni de Medici (1360-1429)Triumph of the Church, Andrea di Bonaiuto, from 1365 until 1367/1366. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, FlorenceAlthough Giovanni di Bicci de Medici was not the first of that name, he is considered the founder of the Medici dynasty, which is true to a certain extent. After inheriting the familys business, he started his branch of the Medici house, but more importantly, he shifted his familys outlook.Giovanni established the Medici Bank and became a very rich man. Thanks to his smarts and keen business ideas, within several years, Giovannis bank was among the leading European financial institutions, working with aristocrats and even the pope. Through expansion, the Medici family was able to become one of the most influential forces in terms of economy and politics.How did Giovanni revolutionize the banking system? He was taught business by his uncle, Vieri de Medici, and quickly became a partner in a large bank branch in Rome. When his uncle retired, Giovanni continued the banking company and legally established the Medici Bank in 1397. In the bank, the new implements he used were legal provisions, risk analysis, and extending loans. Thanks to a sound financial policy, the official currency of the Republic of Florence, the florin, was among the most respected coins in Europe.Giovanni married into nobility; his wife was Piccarda Bueri, and from this marriage, he fathered two sons, Cosimo and Lorenzo. He also embarked on a lifelong tradition of the Medici family supporting artists and scholars. For example, Giovanni commissioned Brunelleschi to remodel a familys church, San Lorenzo. He passed away in 1429 as a man with the second-largest fortune in Florence, leaving his son Cosimo an enormous wealth and the familys banking business.2. Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464)Portrait of Cosimo the Elder, Pontormo, from 1518 to 1520 approximately. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Le Gallerie degli Uffizi, FlorenceCosimo was a true son of his father and went on to expand the family business. However, unlike his predecessor, he knew the necessity of becoming a key figure in Florences political life. Giovanni never had any interest in politics and, therefore, avoided it; Cosimo believed that banking and politics were linked. Being the wealthiest man in Florence, he rapidly gained influence. As a result, he often opposed some of the most influential families in the city, including the Strozzi and the Albizzi.Because of his involvement in Florentine affairs, Cosimo was expelled from the republic in 1433. Nonetheless, with the Medici business somewhat supporting the community, the people objected, and he was readmitted after only one year, in 1434. After the return from exile, Cosimos confidence was much higher, and he effectively became the ruler of Florence. However, he never held an official title or wore a crown, and the city-state continued to be a republic.Besides being the official banker for the Vatikan, Cosimo was a religious man. The Duomo, or the Cathedral of Florence, a project he supported, was completed in 1436, for which he was admired in the community. He was also a friend of the arts and science, and founded the Platonic Academy, which was dedicated to studying classical works. Cosimo was given the nickname The Elder, a title of respect signifying his power and authority as the patriarch of the family. Some of the best-known historical buildings and works in Florence were made during his lifetime.Cosimo died in 1464. After his death, he was awarded the title Pater Patriae (Father of the Fatherland). He was succeeded by his son Piero, a sickly man best known as the father of Lorenzo the Magnificent.3. Lorenzo de Medici (1449-1492)Portrait of Lorenzo de Medici, a Florentine 16th-century sculptor, probably after a model by Verrocchio and Benintendi, 1513/1520. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Gallery of Art, Washington DCLorenzo de Medici is perhaps the most famous member of the Medici family. He deservedly received the nickname the Magnificent and is regarded as one of the prominent representatives of the Renaissance.His grandfather was Cosimo de Medici, and from a young age, he was prepared for the role of a successful businessman, diplomat, and politician. Due to his fathers ill health, Lorenzo also started managing the family business and the politics of the republic while he was under twenty years of age. While he was not the king of Florence, he was a true Renaissance monarch in everything else. But, of course, being so powerful, wealthy, and successful, Lorenzo had some people against him.In 1478, the bloody Pazzi conspiracy occurred. The plot was led by a Florentine banking family, the Pazzi, against Lorenzo and the Medici family. The conspirators were able to eliminate Guiliano, Lorenzos younger brother, while he barely survived. As any pragmatic ruler would do, Lorenzo used this sad event to make himself even more powerful in the Republic of Florence.The Medici Wedding Tapestry, Alessandro Allori, 1589. Source: Westbury, LondonApart from being an intelligent politician and a businessman, Lorenzo is best known for his extraordinary patronage of the arts and sciences. He proudly supported some highly regarded artists such as Michelangelo Buonarroti and Sandro Botticelli. As his grandfather, Lorenzo championed scholars and philosophers. He was the main financier to Marsilio Ficino in the quest to translate Platos work and make classical writings accessible to curious minds. While Florence was a center of the Renaissance before Lorenzo, during his time, it became a vibrant city full of people who embodied the ideals of humanismartists, poets, and opportunistic businessmen.The Magnificent died too soon, at the age of 43. His death marked a turning point for the Medici family and Florence. On the brink of a new age, at the end of the 15th century, Florence started losing some of its influence and power. However, the Medici quickly shifted. Indeed, Lorenzos political maneuvering and cunning diplomacy led his family directly to Rome and his son to become the pope!4. Pope Leo X (Giovanni de Medici, 1475-1521)Portrait of Leo X, Raphael, 1518. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Le Gallerie degli Uffizi, FlorencePope Leo X was the son of none other than Lorenzo the Magnificent. His father left the family business to his older brother, and, at the time, one of the most common options for younger male children was a life in the Catholic Church. However, he was still a Medici, and nepotism and his powerful name played a big role in his career. The familys prospects greatly benefited from having a man directly in the Papal States, so Giovannis roles ranged from diplomacy to administration. Although he was officially a man of God, a hedonistic lifestyle was often associated with Giovanni.Giovanni was elected pope at the papal conclave on March 9, 1513, and chose the name Leo X. Unfortunately, he was not remembered as a capable pope. Leo X was not able to realize that the Catholic Church required change and reform. Church leaders were often corrupted and compromised, which resulted in one of the most consequential moments in historythe Protestant Reformation. In this period, Martin Luther emerged as the leader of the Protestant movement and published his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. After Leo X excommunicated Luther in 1520, the Protestant Reformation took off.Leo X died in 1521 as one of the infamous Renaissance popes, famous for their opulent and decadent lifestyles. In true Medici fashion, he continued the patronage of the arts, and the Vatican acquired some of its most famous works of art during his tenure. For example, Raphael completed the so-called Stanze di Raffaello (Raphael Rooms) in the Apostolic Palace, and Michelangelo was commissioned to continue working on St. Peters Basilica.5. Catherine de Medici (1519-1589)Portrait of Catherine de Medici, Queen of France, attributed to Germain Le Monnier, between 1547 and 1559. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Polo Museale Fiorentino/Palatine Gallery and Royal Apartments (Pitti Palace), FlorenceIt should go without saying that the 16th century was a challenging time for being a woman. However, even with the odds against her, Catherine de Medici managed to turn difficult circumstances into political gains.She was a daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino, and sent to the French court when she was 14 years old. As a woman from a powerful family, Catherines life was already decided by her arranged marriage to Henry, Duke of Orleans. Due to unexpected events, her husband became King Henry II in 1547, and she became the Queen of France. However, it was after the kings death her political involvement started. Her son died soon after coming to the throne, and Catherine became the regent and de facto ruler in her younger sons name.In the 16th century, Protestantism and religious conflicts did not bypass France, where Protestants were known as Huguenots. The Protestants were under constant attack by the Church and the Catholics. Since the Medici family was close to the Papal States, Catherine supported the Catholic faction in dealing with the Huguenots.During her time as the queen of France, one of the bloodiest events in French history took place. On St. Bartholomews Day in 1572, there was an anti-Protestant plot, and thousands of Huguenots were murdered during a massacre. Historians are still debating how much she was involved in this event, but one thing is certain: the violence happened while she was in a place of power.Even after her sons became old enough to rule without a regent, Catherine stayed a powerful voice in French politics. She was a trusted advisor and helped them in dealing with domestic and foreign politics. She died in 1589 and is remembered as an insightful political mind and ruthless ruler.The Legacy of the Medici FamilyThe Birth of Venus, Sandro Botticelli, circa 1485. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Le Gallerie degli Uffizi, FlorenceWhen talking about the morals and characters of the Medici family members, it would be reductive to discuss them through black-and-white lenses. They were far from perfect people and were portrayals and representatives of their time.They embodied the Renaissance ideals, and their inputs to society went from economic to cultural and religious. They also contributed to some of the progressive practices in the business world, such as double-entry bookkeeping and letters of credit. Their bank rose to unseen success, making them powerful players in Italian and European politics. With advances in business and political life, they quickly came into a position to make arrangements with other political rulers and spread their influence far beyond Florence, reaching the Papal States, France, and other Italian city-states.Primavera, Sandro Botticelli, circa 1480/before 1483. Source: Le Gallerie degli Uffizi, FlorenceAbove all, the Medici familys greatest achievement was the support and patronage of Renaissance artists and scholars. Historians are even debating whether the Medici are responsible for the Renaissance itself! One thing is certain: without them, some of the most famous works of art from the Renaissance era would never exist. They are credited for making Florence the Renaissance mecca, the center of cultural and intellectual development in the 15th and 16th centuries.Whether they supported and protected artists such as Michelangelo or Donatello to achieve greatness or influenced the Church and the European continents politics, the legacy of the Medici family is undeniable and everlasting. It would be almost impossible to imagine a modern-day society without some of their contributions.Further reading:Hibbert, C.(1999). The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall. Harper Perennial.Strathern, P.(2003). The Medici: Power, Money, and Ambition in the Italian Renaissance. Pegasus Books.

Maria Walewska may not be a household name like Empress Josephine, but her influence on Napoleon Bonaparte was no less significant. Born to a noble Polish family, Maria became entangled with the French emperor at a time when her countrys fate hung in the balance. Her affair with Napoleon wasnt just a passionate romance; it was a suave political maneuver.Who Was Maria?Portrait of Maria Walewska, 19th century. Source: Get ArchiveMaria hailed from the Polish countryside, born into the noble but somewhat humble czyski family on December 7, 1786. The family, while ancient by title, was not exactly swimming in richesunless one counts the modest holdings that barely kept up appearances. Maria, however, was not destined for a life of quiet obscurity. She was the eldest of six siblings, which made her the familys brightest hope for securing a prosperous future (Im the oldest and the wittiest and the gossip in Poland is insidious, anyone?). That future came in the form of a certain Count Athanasius Walewskia man four times her age and on his third marriage.Maria, still a teen but urged on by her pragmatic mother, took the plunge into holy matrimony with the 60-something Walewski. In doing so, Maria secured her familys financial future. Walewski, for his part, was a man of wealth and statureone of the great houses of Polandbut even his lofty title could not disguise the fact that his days of romanticism and courtship were long behind him. It was, as so many marriages of the time were, a union of necessity, not passion.Maria Walewskas Coffin Plaque. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJust six months into the marriage, Maria bore a son, Antoni Rudolf Bazyli Colonna-Walewski, though rumors whispered that this child was perhaps a product of earlier indiscretions, conveniently timed to save her honor. The baby boy was swiftly whisked away by Walewskis meddlesome family, as though Maria was unfit for the duties of motherhood. With her son under the care of older, unwelcoming in-laws, Maria found herself quite alone, in a loveless marriage with little to occupy her thoughts. It is here that historians theorize her patriotism and bent toward Polish independence bloomed in the dark.Marias Poland was a country that had all but disappeared from the map, carved up by ambitious neighbors. Marias heart belonged not to her husband, but to the cause of revolution, and it was this fervent patriotism that would soon change the course of her lifeand Europe. This is where it gets interesting and where many a researcher has asked themselves: How did this shy, dutiful, if solemn countess end up catching the eye of the most power-hungry man in the world?How Did She Meet Napoleon?The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by Jacques-Louis Davids, 1812. Source: Google Art ProjectIn Marias world, this is where fate and power collided. In the winter of 1806 Napoleon Bonapartefresh from his military triumphs and political machinationsmade his grand arrival in Poland. Warsaw itself was as abuzz as the heart of high society.But let us not fool ourselves into believing this was some whirlwind romance of the usual sort. No, Maria Walewska did not simply flutter into Napoleons arms like some lovesick dove. Their first meeting, depending on which version of the tale you prefer, took place in the modest surroundings of Bonie or perhaps Jabonna, towns that sound far less glamorous than the salons of Paris but were nonetheless filled with intrigue. Maria, ever the dutiful wife and patriot, was hardly swept off her feet by Napoleons power or charm. Indeed, she spoke to him briefly and found their encounter rather unremarkablecertainly not the stuff of grand love stories. And yet, Napoleon, ever one to notice the finer things in life, did not forget her.It wasnt long before the Emperor, whose thoughts rarely strayed from either conquest or courtly pleasures, sought her out once morethis time in Warsaw, at a ball hosted by Count Stanislaw Potocki. Balls were not simply for dancing in those days. They were political stages where alliances were forged, promises whispered, and, in Marias case, decisions of national consequence were weighed.Maria had no intention of being anyones mistress, let alone the Emperors but try to imagine the pressure on one lonely, probably bored, patriotic countess. It came from all sides: General Duroc, the Emperors Grand Marshal, Polish aristocrats, even her own husband. Their strategy was that by surrendering herself to Napoleon, Maria might influence him to help Poland regain its independence.Stanislaw Kostka Potocki, by Anton Graff, 1785. Source: Museum of King Jan IIIReluctant but determined, Maria made a choice. She would sacrifice her personal dignity for the cause of her beloved Poland. As she would later write in her memoirs, The sacrifice was complete. After that glittering ball in Warsaw, Maria embarked on an affair that would soon become one of the most whispered-about scandals in all of Europe.This was no ordinary tryst. Napoleon, ever the strategist, kept their meetings the utmost secret. By day, Maria remained the respectable Countess Walewska, but by night she would slip into the Royal Castle to meet the Emperor in his chambers. Their affair progressed behind closed doors, even as the citys elite speculated with relish on what was a well known secret. How very convenient it must have been for the aging Count Walewskihis young wife now the confidante of the most powerful man in Europe, with political favors hanging in the balance, her rising star leading to more connections and more wealth.Agar Adamson dressed as Napoleon, 1898. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTheir love story, if one dares to call it that, soon took the young woman beyond the borders of Warsaw. Maria followed Napoleon to his field headquarters at Finckenstein Palace, where they lived in adjoining apartments, their not so secret affair continuing under the watchful eyes of courtiers and soldiers alike. Maria, ever conscious of propriety, refused to leave her quarters for fear of being seen. One must wonder whether it was modesty or the fear of gossip that kept her so confined in this Northern Polish outpost. Either way, her resolve to remain unseen did not dampen the fervor of their relationshipor Napoleons affection.As the months passed, the stakes grew ever higher. Maria followed Napoleon on his campaigns, including to Vienna, where she stayed near Schnbrunn Palace while he conducted the business of running his growing empire. It was here, adjacent to the grandeur of the Austrian court, that Maria became pregnant. She returned to Poland to give birth to a son, Alexandre Joseph, a child who was legally recognized by her elderly husband, Count Walewski, but was undeniably Napoleons. After all, her husband had been nowhere near her during the time the baby would have been conceived.It was in this instance, more than ever, that Maria Walewskas life became bound to the fate of Napoleon Bonapartenot by love, but by duty. Marias legacy was secured. Some called her a mere mistress, sure, but her own people saw her as a patriot who played her part in the ever-turning wheel of history, never letting the world forget the plight of Poland.Did She Cause Napoleons Divorce and Remarriage?Empress Josephine, 1888. Source: Look and LearnDid Maria Walewska cause the grandest divorce in European history? As with any courtly drama, the answer changes depending on who you ask. By 1809, Napoleons once all-consuming devotion to Josephine had cooledthough the story of how it unraveled is woven with heartache, political necessity, and the timeless quest for a legitimate heir. Josephine, for all her charm, grace, and savvy, could not give him the one thing he needed to secure his dynasty: a child of his own.It is hard not to see Marias pregnancy and the birth of a healthy son as the catalyst for Josephines downfall. By this point, Napoleon had taken Maria as a mistressa political maneuver just as much as it was a romantic one. Napoleons ability to compartmentalize his personal feelings to better fortify his political ambition was never more evident. Maria, young and beautiful, gave birth to his son, a fact that only further proved that the infertility in Napoleons marriage lay not with him but with Josephine.Yet, Josephines infertility wasnt simply a personal issueit was an empire-threatening flaw. Napoleon, who had recently crowned himself emperor of the French, understood that dynastic continuity was everything. His siblings constantly urged him to set Josephine aside, and though he resisted for years, Maria Walewskas pregnancy may have given him the final piece of evidence that led him to make the ultimate decision. If a mistress could give him an heir, then it was beyond time for Frances empress to do the same.Josphine de Beauharnais, by Andrea Appiani, 1808. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe divorce itself was more dramatic than any of Josephines famous lovers might have foreseen. Napoleon, deeply conflicted and still caring for his wife, hesitated again and again, often sending intermediaries to break the news. Josephine, ever the savvy survivor, must have sensed the rising tide against her. Her anxiety reached its peak when, in 1809, Napoleon made it clear that she wouldnt be joining him on his military campaign in Austria. Instead, he was accompanied by none other than Maria Walewska, whose pregnancy was now visible for all to see.When the moment of truth came at the Tuileries, Josephine, ever able to play a part, collapsed in a fit of sobs. Napoleon, awkward and unsure how to handle a weeping womana far cry from issuing commands on the battlefieldwas forced to carry her to her chambers and away from the eyes of the gossiping courtiers. He may have led armies to victory, but dealing with this womans emotional turmoil was another matter entirely. It wasnt that he didnt care for Josephine, but his sense of duty to France outweighed even his personal loyalty to the one whom he once called my adorable friend.On December 14, 1809, the official divorce was announced to the people. Napoleon gave a public statement, full of gratitude for Josephines companionship and tender words about her years of devotion. Josephine, her voice trembling, attempted to read her own prepared statement but couldnt get through it, leaving it to an attendant to finish. It was, in every sense, the end of an era. Josephine left for her chateau at Malmaison in the rain with her belongings in tow, including her beloved parrot, no doubt aware that she was leaving behind more than just her imperial status.Maria Walewska, by Francois Gerard, 1810. Source: BnFBut was Maria truly to blame for all of this? Marias role in this part of Napoleons life was significant, but she was only part of the equation. The pressures of empire, the need for an heir, and the relentless urging of Napoleons family who had never warmed up to her all conspired against Josephine. Maria Walewska merely happened to be the woman who proved that Napoleon could indeed father children and, in doing so, she tipped the scales.In the end, Napoleons divorce wasnt about love or betrayalit was about his political gains as a single emperor on the marriage market. Josephine, who had been Napoleons good luck charm, remained a cherished figure in his life even after the divorce. The two would exchange frequent letters, sharing each others secrets and dreams despite being apart. However, the demands of the crown ultimately came first. As for Maria Walewska, she played a role in this drama, but it was the winds of fate and the demands of hereditary inheritance that sealed Josephines fate. If it hadnt been Maria, it may very well have been another young woman whose swollen belly led to the imperial divorce.Did Maria Love Napoleon?Napoleon I, Marie Louise of Austria and the king of Rome in the Gardens of the Tuileries, 19th century. Source: PicrylMaria Walewska and Napoleona love story for the ages or merely another chapter in the emperors long list of conquests? Take a look at the situation surrounding their bond and examine what evidence history has left behind.In the wake of Napoleons first abdication in 1814, Maria did not hesitate to rush to Fontainebleau. Was it out of love, duty, or perhaps a concern for the four year old son they shared and the security of his estate? Whatever the motivation, Marias arrival was met with cold indifference. Napoleon, sulking in his self-imposed isolation, refused to see her. The emperor, once so in control of his empire and image, was now helpless, unwilling to confront the ghosts of his pasteven when they came to his doorstep in the form of his former lover.Napoleons Abdication at Fontainebleau, by Paul Delaroche, 1845. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYet, Maria was nothing if not pragmatic. When Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, she sent him a letterthis time not filled with declarations of love, but a polite request for assistance in reclaiming her sons confiscated lands. If Napoleon had expected a love note, he would have been sorely disappointed. Perhaps, in the midst of his much lessened prominence, he still appreciated a strategist and, despite the letters businesslike tone, he invited her to visit him on the island. It could have been nostalgia or he may have harbored the hope of rekindling some old spark. Either way, Maria accepted.On a moonlit night in September 1815, Maria arrived in secret, bringing with her not just memories, but her young son and family. Napoleon himself met her, escorting her to a remote convent where he had pitched a tent in the garden to receive herone imagines, with the same pomp and drama that had always characterized his life. The visit, much like their affair, was fleeting. Maria and her party stayed for only two days before leaving as discreetly as they had come. The island buzzed with rumors of their rendezvous, though what truly transpired between them remains a mystery. Did they speak of love, of politics, or simply exchange polite pleasantries and congratulate each other over their growing son.Propaganda of Napoleon, 1814. Source: RijksmuseumAfter that, their meetings became rare. Maria would see Napoleon only one final time, at Malmaison, following his crushing defeat at Waterloo. By then, both had moved onat least in the physical sense. Maria had remarried, this time to Philippe-Antoine dOrnano, a man deeply in love with her and, conveniently, a cousin of Napoleon. If Maria was looking to finally carve out a life free of the emperors shadow, dOrnanos security and affection seemed to offer that escape.Did she love Napoleon like a Polish Juliet to his overinflated Romeo? The evidence is as muddled as their relationship. Maria may have cared for him, enough to visit him in exile and offer support when the rest of Europe spat on his name. Her actions could also suggest a woman who was acutely aware of the precariousness of her own position and how her standing and her sons hinged on Napoleons decisions. Her letters, more practical than passionate, show that she never lost sight of her sons future or her own position within the volatile political landscape.Philippe-Antoine dOrnano, by Jean-Adolphe Beauc, 1863. Source: BnFPerhaps it was love, but love of a different kinda love mixed with duty, respect, and ambition. Maria Walewska was no nave girl swept away by the charms of a powerful man, though she may have been fresh faced and youthful when their trysts began. She was a shrewd woman, navigating the treacherous waters of Napoleonic Europe with a certain mystique and intelligence. If she loved Napoleon, it was with the understanding that their relationship was always bound by more than mere affection.In the end, Marias final years were spent with dOrnano, a man who adored her and had asked for her hand several times before she accepted his suit. Tragically, her life was cut short at the age of 31, after a failed recovery from giving birth to dOrnanos son. Whether or not she loved Napoleon is a question for the ages, but one thing is clear: Maria Walewska played her role with remarkable finesse, forever etched in history as more than just a lover, but as a woman of her own making.What Happened to Her Son and to Herself?Tomb of Maria Walewska. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn accordance with her wishes, Marias body was returned to her home village of Kiernozia, Poland, where she was laid to rest in the crypt of Saint Margarets Church. Her heart, however, stayed in France, interred in the dOrnano family chapel at Pre Lachaise Cemetery to remain close to her beloved final husband. Even in death, Maria remained tied to both the lands and loves of her lifedivided between Poland and France.Marias legacy lived on through her three sons, each carrying a piece of her story into the future. Her first son, Count Antoni Rudolf Bazyli Colonna-Walewski, was born during her marriage to her first husband, Count Athenasius Walewski. While Antoni never reached the political heights of his half-brother, he carried the noble Walewski name and heritage forward in Poland.As for her son with Napoleon, Alexandre Walewski, his life carried on in the vein of both his parents. Born in 1810, Alexandre was not just a footnote in the tale of his powerful father and breathtaking mother. He became a prominent French politician and diplomat, following in the footsteps of Napoleons ambition, though perhaps with a bit more decorum. He fought in the Polish insurrection of 1830 and later embarked on a diplomatic career that took him across Europe.In 1855, he was appointed Frances Minister of Foreign Affairs, a role that solidified his position as a key figure in the Second Empire. Like his father, Alexandres life was filled with a certain dramatic flair, whether it was his gambling escapades or his participation in high-stakes matches of political tug of war.Count Alexandre Walewski, 1865. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThough Maria did not live to see her sons successes, her influence was undeniable. Alexandre, the son of an emperor and a Polish noblewoman, moved between worlds with ease, much like his mother had done before him. He became a Prince, by decree of Napoleon III, a title that carried with it the weight of his heritage. He was, in many ways, a living bridge between the finer Polish nobility of his mothers side and the imperial ambitions of his sharp fathers.Marias third son, Rodolphe-Auguste dOrnano, was born from her brief second marriage to General Philippe dOrnano, a distinguished officer in Napoleons army and Napoleons cousin. Rodolphe-Auguste went on to become a French politician, much like his elder brother Alexandre, continuing the familys tradition of service and public life. Though Maria did not live to see it, her sons ensured that the Walewska and dOrnano names, as well as her own, would not fade into obscurity.Her line lives on, not just through her descendants but also in unexpected ways. In 1971, the Pani Walewska brand was introduced, one of Polands most iconic cosmetics brands, named after the Polish aristocrat who had once captivated the Emperor of France. The brand, still in production today, serves as a glamorous nod to Marias enduring legacya symbol of beauty, grace, and the lasting impact of a woman who walked the halls of power with both hidden patriotism and enviable finesse.

The Inquisition was not merely a mechanism of religious persecution but also a sophisticated instrument of ideological control that shaped culture, morality, and social structures in the colony. Examining cases such as the persecution of Jews and witch hunts reveals the brutality of its methods, its capacity to dismantle communities, the prejudices of the time, and how it perpetuated a legacy of fear and repression.The Inquisition and Its Expansion to AmericaShield of the Holy Inquisition of Mexico, Anonymous, 17th century. Source: Mediateca INAHThe Inquisition was an institution created by the Catholic Church in the 13th century to combat heresy and preserve orthodoxy. However, the Spanish Inquisition functioned somewhat differently from others. In the period of Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, it was said that there were many Christians who, after being converted from Judaism, continued practicing their old customs. At the request of the Spanish rulers, Pope Sixtus IV issued a bull in 1478 in which he authorized them to appoint their own inquisitors and remove such heretics in perpetuity. The Spanish Inquisition became part of the State itself and answered to the policies and interests of the kingdom, not to the Pope or the Catholic hierarchy. The Spanish Inquisition quickly became an instrument of power for the monarchy, used to pressure and influence the beliefs of its subjects.In the nascent American colonies, the situation was different for two reasons. First, the distance from the center of power, so remote, allowed a greater laxity in the practice of Catholicism, deviating from the orthodoxy that had to be maintained on the peninsula; this led to fears that the colonies would attract people who were fleeing from this control. Second, there was also the question of Indigenous peoples and their religious practices. Ultimately, ideological and religious struggles in the Americas were not only due to internal deviations within Catholicism but also the belief systems deeply rooted in Indigenous societies.Inquisition tribunals were created in the Americas, one in Lima and another in Mexico; later, in 1610, a third tribunal was added in Cartagena de Indias. Among them, they had jurisdiction over the entire territory of Spanish America, and the most relevant cases were brought to these courts.Judaism: The First Crime of the InquisitionManuscript of Luis de Carvajal describing the Ten Commandments, c. 1595. Source: SmartHistory.orgJudaism was seen as a grave sin; after the religious unification following the Reconquista and the expulsion of the Jews, Catholic orthodoxy was imposed in Spain and in the new colonies. It was feared that Jews would escape to the New World in order to continue secretly practicing the rites far from the control of the authorities. Recent DNA studies of Latin Americans reveal a Sephardic ancestry much broader than was originally believed, even greater than in countries such as Spain and Portugal, which indicates the likelihood that many more Jews traveled than was thought, although many practiced in secret.A notable case is that of the Jewish leader Luis de Carvajal, one of the most famous in the New World and the first Jewish author in the Americas, whose work has endured to the present day. Much is known about his Judaism: how he adopted the pseudonym Jose Lumbroso (Joseph the Enlightened), how he circumcised himself with an old pair of scissors, how he prayed, how he celebrated his holidays and fasts, and how he assumed leadership of his sizeable secret Jewish community, which had fled the Inquisition from Portugal and Spain to Mexico in the mid-sixteenth century. Carvajal was caught and arrested for secretly practicing Judaism and was subjected to torture. Carvajal ended up betraying more than a hundred people who secretly practiced Judaism, including the names of his sister and his mother.General Auto-da-F in Mexico, 1649, Anonymous. Source: Mediateca INAHHis confession helped to reveal the internal structure of the Jewish community in Mexico City, which triggered the infamous autos de fe of 1596 and 1601. These were public ceremonies organized by the inquisitorial authorities in which the defendants were denounced and punished. The punishments ranged from public penances, confiscation of goods, forced labor, and, in the most severe cases, the relaxation to the secular arm, which meant being handed over to the civil authorities to be executed, generally by means of a stake. In these two autos de fe, two hundred and ten individuals were accused of various heresies, 86 of them Jews, of whom Carvajal had named 57. In total, 11 were burned at the stake, 10 of whom had been named by Carvajal. The eleventh was Carvajal himself.This process demonstrates the meticulous efficiency of the inquisitorial apparatus: extensive investigations and information networks, the detailed record of all interrogations and torture sessions. The Inquisition used torture to extract information, although most of the time, it was already known through other sources; it served to expand and confirm this information but also as a tool of terror and social control. Thus, it came to have the capacity to dismantle entire communities, destroying the cultural and social life of Jews in the viceroyalty. The autos de fe were ritualized and theatrical, since the objective was not only to punish the guilty but also to serve as a warning to reinforce Catholic orthodoxy and to display the power of the church.Hunting Witches: Superstition and ControlAuto da fe in the Town of San Bartolom Otzolotepec, Anonymous, 18th century. Source: Google Arts and CultureIn Spanish America, there existed an ancient magical tradition deeply connected to religious beliefs and medicinal practices. With the arrival of the Spaniards, a very rigid, dogmatic, and Eurocentric approach was imposed in which the ancient Indigenous idols were associated with representations of the devil. Furthermore, any Indigenous spiritual practice, even those exclusively related to natural medicine, was also demonized.Just as in the European tribunals, the high point of the persecution against superstitions and witches occurred in the first forty years of the 17th century, when the crypto-Jews were fewer in number, and the Lutherans no longer represented a significant threat. The Inquisition had to focus its efforts on other targets that would allow it to justify its existence and maintain ideological control.Accusations of witchcraft and superstition became an inexhaustible source of cases, particularly in the witchcraft epidemics imported from Europe, where fear reigned. These not only served to keep the prisons full but also silenced dissidents and maintained a social order aligned with colonial and ecclesiastical interests.Drawing in a file on heretical propositions, Jos Ventura Gonzlez, 1789-1790. Source: Memorica, Government of MexicoMany of the women accused of being witches or sorceresses belonged to lower social classes; they used these practices to pocket a few pesos, offering services related to love, wealth, and health. Some of them also engaged in prostitution, and witchcraft served as a tool to attract more clients or ensure their loyalty.A very well-known case was that of Paula de Eguluz, a Creole Black woman. In her file it is explained how, on a bad day, the devil appeared to her in the form of a woman and then as a very handsome man, with whom she had carnal relations and afterward went to a coven near Havana. She was sentenced to serve the poor in a hospital. This occurred in 1623, but in 1630, she again had to face the inquisitors, as she was once again accused of converting her neighbors and friends into witches. According to her statements, a little devil called Mantelillos had taught her the science of making strange cures and of exhuming corpses to devour them in her fantastic covens. This time, she was punished with two hundred lashes and was condemned to wear a habit and be imprisoned perpetually.This case shows a mixture of European conceptions of Satanism and the social and cultural dynamics proper to the colonial context. Many of the narrated elements, such as having relations with a demon or covens, did not necessarily reflect real experiences but rather were induced by the inquisitors in order to fit the confessions within the narratives imported from Europe.The Mulatta (The Supper at Emmaus) by Diego Gelzquez, circa 1618. Source: National Gallery of IrelandHistory also highlights Paulas vulnerable position, being a woman, Black, a slave, a healer, and having an active social life; she was more exposed to stigmatization and was made an easy target for accusations of witchcraft both by the authorities and by her own neighbors, who often denounced her and invented stories about her.Under inquisitorial pressures, Paula ended up confessing, either due to internalizing certain beliefs or, perhaps most likely, because it was a means of survival; confessing was a means to avoid more severe penalties. The reality was that sometimes there was no other way to save oneself; the inquisitors sought to fit the accounts within their pre-established notions of witchcraft.The sentences for this type of case were generally not severe and are in no way comparable with the great European tribunals burning all the witches who fell into their hands at the stake. The most common punishments were lashes, exile, serving in hospitals, or being interned with the sick.Behind many of these cases there was an underlying attempt to impose a morality, to punish sexuality and the women who defied hegemonic patriarchal narratives, ultimately seeking to exercise control over women, popular knowledge, and marginalized figures in a deeply unequal colonial system.Echoes of the InquisitionPainting depicting an auto-de-fe, Francisco Goya, 1808-1812. Source: Google Arts and CultureThe Inquisition was not only a system of religious persecution but also a sophisticated and meticulous system of justice that shaped the social and cultural life of the colony. Unlike the justice administered by ordinary courts, which was quite lax, the Inquisition was extremely careful in its procedures, with long trials and severe punishments. Although both types of courts belonged to the Spanish crown, the paramount importance of the Inquisition is visible; beyond punishment, it was a means of ideological control, shaping morality and imposing social rules.Fear was one of the most enduring legacies, for mentalities are the most difficult thing to change in history, enduring through material structures as well as economic and political changes. The surveillance, denunciation, and punishment of the Inquisition left a symbolic mark that persisted over time in subsequent censures, educational control, mechanisms of state repression, and control of information.However, the Inquisition also left an invaluable legacy of documentary sources, records that have allowed modern historians to understand the cultural aspects of everyday life and the experiences of women and ordinary people that were rarely documented elsewhere. Furthermore, because the accusations and trials focused on behaviors considered transgressive, they offer a view into the social practices, beliefs, and cultural tensions of the era. They must be seen as much more than simple norms, for they reveal a mechanism of control that sought to impose a uniform morality. The very prohibitions allow us to glimpse the behaviors that people practiced in secret.

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[View Article at Source]Leftism cannot win in the court of reason, for it has no conception of the worth, value, and impact of constructive ideas over failed contradictions. The only option left for the

[View Article at Source]The Prism of Americas Education with Host Karen Schoen The Smith-Mundt Modernization Act gives our Government the License to LIE. It is up to us to contact our Legislators