In 1492, Italian-born navigator Christopher Columbus, one of the most famous explorers of the Age of Exploration, set sail from Spain with the aim of finding a westward sea route to the East. Landing on an island in the present-day Bahamas, he was convinced to have made landfall in China, still unaware of the existence of a continent between Europe and Asia. Over the following years, he made three other voyages to the West Indies, hoping to find gold and secure his fame. Read on to discover more about Christopher Columbus and his four voyages.The Spice Trade, World Maps, and CalculationsIndian spices in wooden trays, by enviromantic. Source: iStockPortugals expeditions to the African continents west coast were driven by a series of factors, including the desire to explore, a Christian missionary fervor, and the hope of finding a sea route to the East and its spice islands.In the Middle Ages, spices were among the most lucrative and sought-after luxury products. High prices, a limited supply and mysterious origins fueled a growing effort to discover spices and their source of cultivation. Thus, spices were a global commodity centuries before European voyages, explains Yale University Professor Paul Friedman.While the spice trade was a global economic network, medieval Europe had only a vague sense of where the spices came from and how they were harvested. While accounts from European travelers, such as Marco Polo and John Mandeville, expanded the geographical knowledge of the East, their travel books were still full of fabricated information. Indeed, many medieval world maps often placed India close to the Garden of Eden, as cartographers combined Biblical and prophetic stories with inaccurate accounts.When Marco Polo visited the East, the pax mongolica (Mongolic Peace), a period of stability during the height of the Mongol Empire, allowed for relative freedom of travel. As a result, in the 13th and 14th centuries, people, ideas, and goods were exchanged through Central Asia, giving the Europeans an unprecedented opportunity for travel and trade.As the Mongol Empire weakened and the Ottomans conquered Constantinople (1453), leading to the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the traditional trade routes became hard to access for European merchants. As a result, by the 15th century, the European spice trade became dependent on a network of markets and routes largely controlled by Muslim powers. Over the following decades, the European powers began to search for alternative routes that would lead them directly to the East and its spices.The planting of the cross by Bartolomeu Dias at the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, by F. Benda, c. 1750. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1487, Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the present-day Cape of Good Hope. Ten years later, Vasco da Gama followed the same route to reach India, securing Portugals monopoly on the spice trade. The desire to challenge the Portuguese hold was a significant factor in Queen Isabellas decision to back Columbus voyage, an enterprise that sought to find a way to reach China and Japan by sailing westward through the Atlantic Ocean.In the 15th century, the leading advocate for a sea route west to Cathay (China) was Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, a Florentine mathematician and geographer. From Lisbon directly westward there are in the chart twenty-six spaces, each one of which contains 250 miles, as far as the great and noble city of Quinsai [present-day Hangzhou], as well as at Cipango and Cathay, claimed Toscanelli in a 1474 letter that Columbus consulted before his voyage.Besides being unaware of the existence of another continent between Europe and Asia, Toscanellis calculations underestimated the actual distance between Lisbon and Japan, believing it consisted merely of 6,500 miles. Toscanelli based his theory on the Greco-Roman astronomer and geographer Ptolemys idea that the Earth has a small circumference. Combining these erroneous calculations, Columbus reduced the distance between Japan and the Canary Islands by about one-third.Who Was Christopher Columbus?Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus, by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityChristopher Columbus was born Cristoforo Colombo in 1451 in the Italian seaport city of Genoa. His father, Domenico Colombo, was a merchant and wool worker. After Cristoforo, Domenico and his wife, Susanna Fontanarossa, had four other children: Bartolomeo (Bartholomew), Giovanni Pellegrino, Giacomo (also known as Diego), and Bianchinetta.Little is known about Columbus youth, and even his origin is disputed, with some claiming he was of Catalan or Portuguese descent, rather than Genoese. According to a group of researchers who studied a DNA sample taken from his tomb, Columbus was a converted Jew from Spain. The vast majority of scholars, however, believe the explorer was born in Genoa, citing as evidence archival documents from Genoas Archivio di Stato (state archive), especially his 1498 testament.Around 1477, Christopher and Bartholomew moved to Lisbon, where they worked as chartmakers and trade agents for the Genoese firm Centurione. In 1478, Centurione sent Columbus to Madeira, where he bought sugar, a sought-after product at the time. The following year, he married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz. In 1480, the couple had a son, Diego. Around 1488, Columbus fathered a second son, Ferdinand, with his mistress, Beatriz Enrquez de Harana of Crdoba.Caption: The Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1492-1504). Source: TheCollectorBy then, Portugal had already explored the west coast of Africa. In the first half of the 15th century, Prince Henry the Navigator, with the assistance of a group of skilled geographers and seamen, launched a series of expeditions that brought the Portuguese to Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands.In the 1480s, Christopher Columbus made several trips to tropical West Africa, trading on the Guinea and Gold Coast and gaining knowledge of the Portuguese navigation system. However, when he asked King John II of Portugal to fund his project of finding a westward sea route to the East, the Portuguese monarch refused. In 1486, the Genoese navigator began seeking patronage at the Spanish court.Six years later, in January 1492, he finally succeeded in securing the patronage of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile. By the terms of the Capitulations of Santa F, signed in April, Columbus was named Admiral of the Ocean Sea, viceroy and governor general of all the lands he would discover on his journey.The First VoyageLanding of Christopher Columbus, by John Vanderlyn, 1846. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn August 3, 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed from Palos with a fleet of three ships, the Nia, the Pinta, and the Santa Mara. Not unlike the Spanish monarchs, the Italian-born navigator was driven by a mix of desire for adventure and prestige and a Christian missionary fervor. Just seven months earlier, the fall of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula, had ended the Reconquista, creating a wave of religious euphoria among Christians.Columbus, who was present at the siege of Granada, directly referenced the Reconquista in the letter opening the journal of his first voyage: I saw the Moorish King come forth from the gates of the city and kiss the royal hands of your. Highnesses, and of the Prince my Lord. He then commented on the missionary aim of his voyage, declaring that the monarchs resolved to send me, Cristobal Colon, to the said parts of India to see the said princes, and the cities and lands, and their disposition, with a view that they might be converted to our holy faith.After sailing to the Canary Islands, Columbus began his crossing of the Atlantic Ocean on September 6, 1492. More than a month afterward, when the crew had begun to feel restless and provisions were low, Columbus finally sighted land on October 12, making landfall on one of the islands of the Bahamas, most probably San Salvador.Replicas of the Nia, Pinta, and Santa Mara for the 1912 Worlds Fair in Chicago. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Andrews, E. Benjamin. History of the United States, volume V. Charles Scribners Sons, New York. 1912On October 28, the fleet arrived in present-day Cuba, a location Columbus initially believed to be Cipangu (Japan). He then became convinced it was actually Cathay (China). Over the following months, Columbus searched for the city of Zaiton (Quanzhou), Chinas greatest and most famous port in the 13th and 14th centuries, when Marco Polo traveled throughout Asia. In December, adverse winds carried the navigator and his fleet to present-day Haiti, renamed by Columbus La Isla Espaola (Hispaniola).On the island, Columbus found gold with the help of the Tano, the native inhabitants of Hispaniola/Haiti and one of the most numerous indigenous peoples of the Caribbean. After setting up a stockade and leaving 39 men to guard it, Columbus began his return voyage on January 16, 1493. A few days earlier, the Pinta, commanded by Martn Alonso Pinzn, had joined the rest of the fleet after a less than two-month desertion. This event was not the only instance of tensions between Columbus and his crew, whose men often resented the explorers autocratic leadership.After a difficult journey, during which a storm forced the Nia to seek harbor in the Portuguese-controlled Azores, where the crew was imprisoned by Portuguese authorities, Columbus landed in Palos on March 15, 1493. Upon reaching Navidad, the stockade built a year earlier, the admiral was shocked when he found it in ruins and the garrison left to guard it dead.After spending the following year exploring the Cabo Valley, the Cuban coastline, and Jamaica, Columbus returned to Hispaniola in 1495 and began a ruthless conquest of the island, causing widespread devastation among the local Indigenous people.The Second VoyageInspiration of Christopher Columbus, by Jos Mara Obregn, 1856. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museo Nacional de Arte, Mexico CityWhile Christopher Columbus had failed to find the fabled gold- and spice-laden cities of the East, the amount of gold, spices, exotic birds, and captives he paraded upon his return was enough to convince the Catholic Monarchs to fund a second voyage to the Indies.On September 25, 1493, Columbus sailed for a second time to the West Indies. On that day, a fleet of at least 17 ships left the port of Cdiz (Spain). The crew included about 1,300 men. Among them was also a group of friars, a testament to the underlying missionary aim of the voyage.After sailing to the Canary Islands, the fleet landed in Dominica in the Lesser Antilles on November 3, 1493. Twenty days later, Columbus was back in Hispaniola. His harsh methods of governance also provoked resentment among his crew, with many complaining about his lack of trust, inflexibility, and an autocratic attitude fueled by the belief that he was the bearer of a divine plan destined to expand the borders of Christendom.During his second voyage, Columbus also made his men swear that Cuba was, beyond any doubt, mainland Chinaan indication that, while he needed to prove the success of his expeditions, not all agreed with him.After leaving his brothers Bartholomew and Diego in charge of the Spanish settlement in Hispaniola, Columbus set sail for Spain in March 1496. On June 11, he returned to Cdiz and immediately began lobbying for a third voyage.The Third VoyageView of the Gulf of Paria, photograph by Chris Fitzpatrick, 2013. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Columbus second voyage yielded less than satisfactory results, Ferdinand and Isabella decided to fund a third expedition. By then, the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas had divided the Atlantic Ocean between Spain and Portugal, giving Spain the lands west of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. However, the agreement did not cover the opposite side of the globe, where West and East were supposed to meet.On May 30, 1498, Columbus left Spain to sail across the Atlantic for a third time. The main goal of this third voyage was to find a strait that would lead to Cubabelieved to be Cathay (China)to India. On July 4, the six ships under the admirals command left from So Tiago in Cape Verde for Hispaniola.After stopping at Trinidad, the fleet then reached the Gulf of Paria, where Columbus planted a Spanish flag on the Paria Peninsula. Over the following months, the El Corro explored the Grande River, and, seeing the amount of fresh water flowing into the Gulf of Paria, Columbus guessed the existence of a new continent nearby. However, he failed to find a strait leading to India and returned to Hispaniola.The Cathedral in Cdiz, the Spanish city from which Columbus sailed on his second and fourth voyages, photograph by Jrcordon, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUpon his return, the island was experiencing a wave of political instability, with Indigenous people and Spaniards growing frustrated by Columbus brothers autocratic rule. While the navigator tried to put an end to the rebellion, Francisco de Bobadilla, the Spanish chief of justice, was sent to the colony to investigate the situation and address the complaints against the Columbus brothers.In his report of the second voyage, Columbus blamed the tense atmosphere on sickness, a lack of provisions, and the resistance of the natives to Spanish rule. However, the exploitation system set up by Christopher and Bartholomew must also be taken into account. Indeed, under their rule, the Tainos were enslaved and forced to mine gold or shipped to Europe. During his governorship, Bartholomew increased dissent among the natives by taking direct charge of the mining activity, replacing the previous policy that tasked local chiefs with delivering a certain amount of gold.When Francisco de Bobadilla arrived at Hispaniola, he ruled against the Columbus brothers, who were then sent back to Spain in irons. They landed at Cdiz in October 1500.The Fourth VoyageChristopher Columbus kneeling in front of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon, author and date unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DCDuring the return voyage, Christopher Columbus wrote a lengthy letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, in which he presented his exploration of the West Indies in biblical terms. He even claimed to have found the location of the Earthly Paradise while sailing to Trinidad and the Gulf of Paria, as the weather became mild and the polestars rotation gave him the impression of sailing upwards. In his missive, Columbus also defended his actions as governor and declared he was close to finding the gold-landen realms near the Paradise.Upon his return to Spain, Columbus managed to secure his release, and in December 1500, he was granted an audience with Ferdinand and Isabella. While the monarchs did not reappoint him as governor, they agreed to back a fourth voyage to the West Indies. In October of the following year, Columbus was busy preparing for the upcoming trip. Meanwhile, he began compiling the Book of Prophecies, a compilation of apocalyptic revelations, and the Book of Privileges, a list of his familys titles and claims.In the midst of this religious fervor and desire for glory, Columbus sailed with four ships from Cdiz on May 9, 1502. About two months later, he reached Martinique, but when he demanded entry to Santo Domingo on Hispaniola, his request was refused. He then sailed southward, exploring the coast of Jamaica, Cuba, Honduras, the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua, and Costa Rica between July and September 1502.Columbus Farewell before Starting on his Voyage from Port Palos in Spain, by Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky, 1892. Source: Wikimedia Commons/SothebysIn February 1503, he began to establish a trading post on the Beln River. However, he was soon discouraged by the hostility of the natives and the poor conditions of his two remaining ships. He thus decided to sail back to Hispaniola. During the return voyage, however, disaster struck, and he had to beach his ships on the Jamaican coast. Castaway by June 1503, Columbus and his men did not see any rescuers until June of the following year.Disappointed by the outcome of his fourth voyage, Columbus returned to Spain on November 7, 1504, only to discover that his main patron, Queen Isabella, was close to dying.The Legacy of Christopher Columbus VoyagesStatue of Christopher Columbus, by Frdric Auguste Bartholdi, 1893, photograph by Kenneth C. Zirkel. Once located in Columbus Square in the City of Providence, it was removed in 2020 and relocated to Johnston in 2023. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUntil his death in May 1506, Columbus always declared to have made landfall in the East by sailing across the Atlantic. Whether he actually believed this or was, in fact, defending his reputation as an explorer and navigator is unclear. In 1521, when Juan Sebastin Elcano, Ferdinand Magellans second in command, completed the circumnavigation of the globe, Columbus claim to have reached China by sailing westward was once and for all disproven.Nevertheless, Columbus was long celebrated as the discoverer of the Americas across Europe, where, as a result of his four voyages, the leading powers began building colonial empires in the new continent. More recently, however, the public and scholarly discourse has called for a more nuanced depiction of Columbus enterprise, emphasizing its disastrous effects on the Indigenous populations of the Americas.

Following the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese Empire sought to expand its influence over the resource-rich region of Manchuria in northeast China. To exploit the areas natural resources, Japan began construction of the South Manchuria Railway, a symbol of Japans imperial goals in the region. When the railway was seemingly attacked during the Mukden Incident on September 18, 1931, Japan took complete control of the region and established its own puppet state. How did the Mukden incident occur, and what were the motivations behind it?Background to the Mukden IncidentExpress train on the South Manchurian Railway, 1929. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Mukden Incident occurred during a time and context when regional tensions between China and Japan were reaching their breaking point. As Japan had made considerable territorial gains from China over portions of Manchuria after the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), it sought to consolidate the region as a whole and absorb it into the Japanese Empire. The South Manchuria Railway, which Japan used to exploit the areas natural resources, was a source of heightened tensions between China and Japantensions that would eventually lead to war.While Japan encroached on its territory and built a railway to exploit one of its contested territories, China was battling severe domestic unrest. During the 1920s and early 1930s, Chinas inability to deal with the threat from Japan was exacerbated by the struggles among the numerous warlords, which weakened the nations central authority. Amidst the unrest, Japan saw a chance to further its interests in Manchuria and began legitimizing its territorial ambitions with a diplomatic smoke screen.The Japanese Empires need for resources to feed its expanding industrial machine increased regional tensions. The abundant natural resources of Manchuria proved irresistible, and Japan believed that dominance over the area was crucial to its future as an imperial power. As a result, the stage was set for conflict, with both sides desiring influence over the area but having no diplomatic solution.The Mukden Incident: What Happened on September 18, 1931Japanese experts inspect the scene of the railway sabotage on the South Manchurian Railway, 1931. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe South Manchuria Railway was at the heart of the Mukden Incident. On September 18, 1931, just outside present-day Shenyang, an explosion occurred on the railway. However, the explosion was reportedly so small that a scheduled train passed over the damaged track without any difficulty. Although the damage was not extensive and nobody was killed by the blast, the Japanese military took it as an act of deliberate violence and aggression by the Chinese.Today, new evidence has come to light that the militaristic Kwantung Army Colonel Seishir Itagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara of the Japanese Kwantung Army, the military force guarding Japans interest in Manchuria, had planned the bombing as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria.While the incident did not significantly damage the South Manchuria Railway, it gave the Kwantung Army the justification it needed to invade Manchuria on a large scale.Moving quickly, the Japanese Kwantung Army seized Mukden and other key locations in Manchuria under the pretext that they were looking for those responsible for the explosion. Little resistance was put up by the Chinese forces, who were unprepared for a full-scale invasion and were taken by surprise. Japanese forces seized control of several strategic sites in a matter of days, and Japans occupation of Manchuria had officially begun.Immediate Aftermath: Military Actions and OccupationJapanese soldiers of 29th Regiment taking an offensive posture on the Mukden Little West Gate, 1931. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Japanese military soon consolidated their gains over the region and quickly took control over the strategic Manchurian towns of Changchun, Jilin, and Harbin. The ease with which Japan took control over Manchuria and the swift nature of the invasion led many to believe that the entire Mukden incident was known about well in advance, the actions of the Kwantung army suggested that Japan had been waiting for this chance to increase its territory in Manchuria for some time.The unprepared Chinese soldiers found it difficult to defend against the approaching Japanese forces, who swiftly defeated them in every major engagement. Moreover, lack of unity in the Chinese government significantly prevented Chiang Kai-sheks Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) from organizing a successful counter-offensive. As a result, Manchuria was occupied by the Japanese at lightning speed, and it soon became a de facto part of the Japanese Empire.The diplomatic fallout from Japans invasion of Manchuria was severe. Naturally, China strongly objected to the invasion and sought assistance from its allies. However, the international response was, at best, muted, with many countries unable to help as they faced their own domestic, political, and economic problems.International Reactions: The League of Nations and Global DiplomacyThe League of Nations, 1920. Source: National Library of NorwayThe League of Nations, founded to uphold world peace and security after World War I, took the lead in the international response to Japans invasion of Manchuria. In response to Chinas cry for international aid, the League of Nations sent the Lytton Commission to investigate the Mukden Incident. The commissions conclusions, released in October 1932, stated that there was no reason for Japans invasion and that the Mukden Incident was not an act of Chinese aggression.While the Lytton Report had shown the world that Japan was unjustified in its actions, the League of Nations was unable to enforce any significant sanctions on Japan. Instead, the League demanded that Japan withdraw troops from Manchuria and resolve the conflict diplomatically. In response, Japan left the League of Nations in 1933. The failure of the League to hold Japan responsible exposed the flaws in the international system and gave other nations with expansionist goals, such as Italy and Germany, more confidence.As it was not a member of the League of Nations, the United States formulated its own response to the Mukden Incident. Forgoing its isolationist attitude, the US announced the Stimson Doctrine, which stated that it would not recognize any territorial gains a foreign power had made by force. However, this policy had no real-world impact, and no substantial measures were enforced.Propaganda and Narrative ControlManchukuo propaganda poster. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Japanese government shaped the public view of the Mukden Incident through the extensive use of propaganda. A coordinated campaign portrayed the invasion of Manchuria as a necessary step that had to be taken in order to secure Japans regional security and national sovereignty. The narrative that the Japanese government put forward focused on the necessity of economic development and self-defense, and blamed China for mismanaging Manchuria.Japans propaganda succeeded in persuading people that the invasion was justified. The official narrative was bolstered by the government-controlled media, which portrayed Japan as the benevolent force bringing modernization to Manchuria, and the Chinese as the aggressors. This image struck a chord with a public already shaped by feelings of nationalism and a sense of duty to steer Asias progress.From the Chinese perspective, propaganda relied more heavily on the truth. They portrayed Japan as an aggressive foreign power. The government narrative emphasized the unfairness of the invasion and focused on how the Chinese were made to suffer while foreign powers did nothing. However, internal divisions within China made it more difficult to rally the nation around the official government narrative.The Manchukuo Puppet StatePu Yi Qing during the Manchukuo Period. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter their successful invasion of Manchuria, the Japanese Empire founded the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. The former Emperor of China, Pu Yi, who had been ousted from power, was made the leader of the nation, and Manchukuo was presented to the world as an independent nation with its own government, people, and identity. The reality was that Manchukuo was a Japanese invention used to give legitimacy to Japans control of the area.During this period, Japan heavily developed the infrastructure of Manchuria and began to exploit the regions natural resources to full effect. The construction of factories, roads, and railways changed the landscape of the regiona project that benefited Japan almost entirely. The local population was subjected to harsh violence under Japanese rule and saw little advantage from the rapid industrialization.Long-term Consequences: Prelude to Greater ConflictJapanese Navy troops during the Battle of Shanghai, 1937. Source: Brent Jones / Wikimedia CommonsThe Mukden Incident of 1931 and Japans invasion of Manchuria paved the way for further conflict both in the region and across Asia as a whole. The militarist forces of Japan, which had orchestrated the incident, were encouraged by their success and the apparent unwillingness of the international community to intervene. This confidence was devastating as it gave them further motivation to continue aggressive acts throughout Asia and eventually led to their attack against America at Pearl Harbor, which precipitated US entry into World War II. Moreover, nations that shared Japans goal of expansionism saw the League of Nations inaction as a green light to carry out their aggressive ambitions.The loss of Manchuria was a severe setback for China, both economically and ideologically. In response to the invasion, Chinese nationalism began to rise, a development that ultimately led to the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), which devastated China and led to long-lasting consequences for the nation.

Since it became the sole hegemonic power in the Americas, much of the regions affairs have been carried out with the approval or despite the objection of the United States. During the 20th century in particular, when revolutionary regimes sprang up throughout much of Latin America and the Caribbean, the US was keen on demonstrating its might. In many cases, feeling threatened by the spread of leftist governments and the potential rise in Soviet influence, the US-backed efforts to interfere in or even topple sovereign regimes throughout Latin America.1. The 1973 Chilean Coup Against Socialist President Salvador AllendePhotograph of the attack on La Moneda in Chile, 1973. Photo by Enrique Aracena. Source: Al JazeeraThough not a counterrevolution in the strict sense, the 1973 Chilean coup exemplifies much of what happened behind the scenes of the average American intervention in Latin America during this period. Socialist Chilean politician Salvador Allende had been elected president in a narrow win some years earlier, promising socialism in the Chilean way. Yet his honeymoon in power quickly vanished. Allende faced great opposition from business elites and right-wing elements in the country. Allende nationalized key sectors, like the copper industry, which angered Chilean business elites and discomfited the Americans. Allende was too left-wing for the US, and his closeness to Cubas Fidel Castro was also seen as a threat.In 1973, an attack on La Moneda, Chiles presidential palace, resulted in all branches of the Chilean armed forces turning against the democratically elected president. They were led by General Augusto Pinochet, a Chilean military man who had risen to influence thanks to his relationship with General Carlos Prats and the assassination of Rene Schneider. Schneider had been picked by Allende as Commander in Chief of the Army, yet he was murdered days before assuming office in a far-right kidnapping attempt gone awry. The responsible group was linked to the CIA, and the kidnapping was intended to stop Allende from taking office. After Schneiders death, Prats became Commander in Chief and Pinochet second in command.When a failed coup was suppressed by Prats, Allende named him Minister of Defense, but many in the army did not support his appointment. Prats resigned and recommended Pinochet, who assumed the role days later. Internally, officials in the army were already planning on ousting Allende and acted knowingly and with the support of the CIA and Nixons government. The coup was successful, and the US promptly recognized Pinochets government.2. Victoriano Huerta and the Mexican RevolutionVictoriano Huerta, 1910s. Source: Memoria Poltica de MxicoIn 1910, Mexico found itself once more mired in bloodshed. The three-decades-long dictatorship of General Porfirio Daz was coming to an endor so he said. Democratic elections were to take place, with Daz stepping away from power for the first time in almost 35 years. Yet, at the last moment, Daz decided to stand as a candidate. His main opponent was Francisco I. Madero, a wealthy hacendado (landowner) from the north of Mexico who agreed with Daz on most issues but saw his refusal to stand down as a major mistake for Mexican democracy.Daz was elected for another term, yet the match had been lit. Madero and his supporters denounced the result and called for an uprising. Madero escaped to San Antonio, Texas, where he planned and began his part in the Revolution. Daz was eventually toppled, escaping to France after Maderos uprising had brought many factions into the fold and made Dazs fall inevitable. Madero became president but failed to remove many of Dazs supporters from the government, including Victoriano Huerta, a Mexican General who fought on Dazs side yet was accepted into Maderos administration.Daz loyalists invited Huerta to participate in a conspiracy to topple Madero and make Dazs nephew, Feliz Daz, the new president. Initially, Huerta was skeptical of the conspiracy, thinking the conspirators would only use him. But when a failed coup resulted in Huertas promotion as the capitals defender, his new position afforded him the confidence to play a major role in the conspiracy. In the infamous Pact of the Embassy, coordinated by the US Ambassador to Mexico Henry Lane Wilson, Huerta agreed to support the conspirators in making Feliz Daz president following Maderos deposition. Huerta betrayed Madero but ultimately refused to give up power, placing himself in the presidency instead of Daz.3. Bay of Pigs Invasion: Americas Obsession with CubaPhotograph of President John F. Kennedy at a press conference following the Bay of Pigs invasion, 1961. Source: Brettman-Corbis, NewsweekAmerican President John F. Kennedy felt that Dwight Eisenhowers administration had been soft on Communism, while he was a staunch believer in containing Communism abroad and reversing its progress in the West. In reality, Eisenhower was not particularly soft on Communism, and in fact, JFK moved ahead with the Bay of Pigs invasion, planned during the Eisenhower administration.The Bay of Pigs invasion was approved by the CIA and backed and funded by the US government. Counterrevolutionaries were trained in Guatemala to eventually lead an invasion of Cuba and topple Castro. The invasion was also supported by anti-Castro Cuban exiles, namely the Cuban Democratic Revolutionary Front.The organization was transformed into the Cuban Revolutionary Council days before the invasion and was to play a key role in assuming leadership on the island and establishing a provisional government. Yet the invasion was flawed from the start. The organizers assumed that those who opposed Castro in Cuba would rise up against the socialist leader, yet that never happened. Western intelligence later revealed that no mass defections or insurrections took place because the public was entirely on Castros side.Kennedy also sought to hide US involvement, but from the very first day, pictures of US planes painted to look like Cuban planes went public, revealing American involvement. Kennedy canceled a second strike, which proved fatal to the guerilla forces on the ground in dire need of support. The failure of Bay of Pigs led to Operation Mongoose, a renewed effort to destabilize Cuba and bring down the Castro regime, famously including many attempts on Castros life.4. The Dominican Civil War and the CIAPhotograph of a Dominican confronting a US Marine, by Juan Prez Terrero, 1966. Source: EsendomRafael Trujillo, known as El Jefe (the boss), was a right-wing dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic for decades. He first ruled as President but later ruled over figureheads. In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA. A 1975 report had CIA officials testify about their involvement in Trujillos assassination. The officials described their role as a faint connection, but a 1973 internal memorandum describes the Agencys participation with the plotters as quite extensive.The CIA celebrated the regime change, though only briefly. Socialist Juan Bosch rose to power in 1963, and though initially supported by the CIA, once in power, Bosch lost US support. Some 7 months after taking office, Bosch was toppled by a right-wing coup following strong opposition from conservatives, the Church, and business elites. Though the US had no involvement in the coup, the subsequent civil war prompted their entrance into the conflict. Supporters of Bosch rejected the military-imposed regime and ousted the installed president in 1965. The army united under the deposed dictator while rebels rallied around the constitution and the call for democratic elections. Yet the rebels were believed to have Communist support, hence American interest in blocking their road to power. Operation Power Pack saw a United States occupation of the Dominican Republic under the Inter-American Peace Force of the Organization of American States, of which the US made up the majority of troops.After the war was over, elections took place, and under the promise of reconciliation, the conservative reformist Joaquin Balaguer won against Bosch, ensuring another American victory in the containment of Communism in Latin America.5. The Contras: A Nicaraguan CounterrevolutionPhotograph of a Nicaraguan guerilla fighter, by Bill Gentile, 1979. Source: Bill Gentile, Daily BeastWhile the Iran-Contra Affair is a beast of its own, the Contras part of the affair is perhaps the prime example of US-backed counterrevolutions in Latin America. In 1979, a revolution in Nicaragua successfully toppled Anastasio Somozas dictatorship. The Frente Sandinista de Liberacin Nacional (Sandinista National Liberation Front), FSLN, was a leftist organization that, much like many other Latin American revolutions of the mid-20th century, rebelled against authoritarianism and denounced US imperialism. The Sandinistas followed the revolutionary principles of Augusto Sandino, a Nicaraguan guerilla fighter who resisted US occupation in the 1930s. The Marxist-Leninist Sandinistas were considered a major threat to US interests in Central America. Similarly, Somoza supporters and prominent right-wing figures opposed the new Sandinista government.The counter-movement that arose wasnt a consolidated force. Instead, it was an insurgency composed of multiple right-wing rebel groups. They were called Contras, short for contrarrevolucionarios, counterrevolutionaries. Many of these groups were not only US-backed but also US-financed. US support for the Contras was eventually outlawed under the Boland Amendment in Congress. However, the Reagan administration secretly continued providing support for the right-wing insurgents. Reagan covertly facilitated arms sales to Iran, which at the time was subject to an arms embargo, hoping to fund the Contras in Nicaragua with this money.Both the Sandinistas and the Contras are believed to have committed war crimes, and the matter remains controversial. In 1990, an election upset gave the opposition candidate 54% of the vote share, winning the presidency. Violeta Chamorro became the first female president of Nicaragua. Negotiations for the end of the civil war began just days after, involving former US President Jimmy Carter. By July, all of the Contras had demobilized and surrendered their weapons.

A thermopolium was a fast-food stand meant for the lower class Pompeians who didn't have cooking tools or amenities of their own to eat, drink, and socialize.The post 2,000-Year-Old Fast Food Stands Called Thermopolia Discovered In Pompeii appeared first on All That's Interesting.

From powerful priestesses to demonic masters of the occult, the history of witches is a story of the dangers of being a woman in a male dominated world.The post The History Of Witches: How Christianity And Misogyny Turned Revered Healers Into Wicked Pariahs appeared first on All That's Interesting.

Dying Light: The Beast is a spin-off that has you playing as Kyle Crane, who is out for revenge against the ones who have been experimenting on him for years. Even though the plot is on the simpler side, it seems like the fans have finally gotten what they have been wanting for years from a Dying Light game.

The Lord works in mysterious ways. We here on this mortal coil are not privy to the ways of God. That is the great mystery of faith. Charlie Kirk had faith and dedicated his life to it. Turning Point

Senator Rand Paul (RKY) strongly criticized comments by FCC Chairman Brendan Carr regarding ABC and Jimmy Kimmel, calling them absolutely inappropriate. Paul made his remarks on Meet the Press,

An armed man impersonating law enforcement was arrested Friday outside State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, where tens of thousands are expected to gather for Sundays memorial service honoring

It's the start of another new week, and that means a batch of new games is being released for the PS5 and PS4 on the PlayStation Store.