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Korea as a nation is not typically regarded as having one of the strongest monarchies of the medieval world. Part of this is due to the largely Eurocentric history of the Middle Ages, as well as the fact that they competed against the mighty dynasties of medieval China and the ever-expanding Japanese Empire. However, one ruler stands out among his contemporaries, and for good reason: Sejong the Great. Being given the epithet the Great is a rare achievement for a monarch. Read on to discover how and why he gained this title.Sejongs Early LifeSejong the Great, posthumous portrait, 1973. Source: Academic.ruAs with many rulers during the Middle Ages, little is known about Sejongs childhood. However, we do know that his birth name was Yi To and that he was born on May 15, 1397. His father was Taejong, the third monarch of the Joseon Dynasty, and his mother was Queen Wongyeong. The young Yi Tos grandfather was King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon Dynasty, which would go on to rule Korea for another 400 years.Another interesting fact that we know about Yi Tos early life is that he was not born in Gyeongbokgung Palace, the main residence of Korean royalty. This is likely only because his father was not yet king at the time of his birth.Yis father arranged his marriage to Lady Sim of the Cheongsong Sim Clan, and she would later go on to rule as Queen Soheon. Aged 15 in 1412, Yi To was granted the title Grand Prince Chungnyeong, and three years later he fathered his first son, who would go on to rule as Munjong, the fifth monarch of the Joseon Dynasty.Sejongs Route to the ThroneTomb of Sejong the Great, photo by Kai Hendry. Source: FlickrSejong was actually the third-eldest son of Taejong, so would not naturally have been chosen to rule, as he had two older brothers.Grand Prince Yangnyeong was the eldest son, so he was expected to inherit the throne. However, Taejong realized that his eldest sons behavior was irrational and erratic, and, alongside court officials, recognized that Yangnyeong would have been an unsuitable ruler. Imagine how different European history could have looked if medieval monarchs adopted the same attitude!Eventually, Yangnyeong was dismissed as crown prince, and by mid-1418, officials were once again encouraging Taejong to select a new heir to the Korean throne.Taejong initially advocated for Yangnyeongs eldest son to become heir, as he would be the next in line, but after discussions with officials, they came to the conclusion that they needed a wise personunfortunately, Yangnyeongs son did not fit this category.The Veritable Records in Seoul National University. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, the main primary source for this period, acknowledge that the Taejong gave a very measured response when asked why he was not choosing Yangnyeongs son: The father knows his sons best, as the king knows his subjects best.Following in his stead, the next obvious candidate was Taejongs second son, Grand Prince Hyoryeong. However, he viewed Hyoryeong to be too soft-natured, and he felt he would be unable to drink with and entertain Chinese Ming dignitaries.The baton then passed to Sejongperhaps a case of third-times-the-charm? Taejong saw Sejong as sharp, intelligent, politically savvy, and everything that a king should be. The court officials also welcomed this decision, later stating that he was their preferred choice. Although, whether this was simply to stay on the good side of Taejong, we do not know.On July 8, 1418, Sejong was pronounced crown prince of Joseon.Sejongs Early ReignPainting of Confucius, by Kan Sansetsu, 1632. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFollowing his decision to make Sejong Crown Prince, Taejong decided to abdicate just two months later. Sejongs reign officially began on September 18, 1418. However, despite his abdication, Taejong still retained various powers, such as having full control of the military and being able to make political decisions as king emeritus.However, unlike many medieval rulers, Sejong did not rue his fathers control. Instead, he sought to use his advice and did not challenge his authority. Taejong was not about to let his decisions backfire, though. He was a brutal ruler at times, and to avoid Queen Soheon gaining too much political power, he sought to leave her isolated, politically. He had her father executed on jumped-up charges of treason and had other members of her family exiled or made commoners.Religious TroublesPensive bodhisattva, Korea, mid-7th century. Source: The MET, New YorkReligion was a major point of contention during Sejongs reign. In Korea at the time, there were two primary religions: Confucianism and Buddhism. Confucianism had spread from mainland China and followed the teachings of the great ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. Meanwhile, Buddhism had spread from the Indian subcontinent and had reached Korea around the 4th century CE.Sejong followed the rule of his father and most of the Joseon monarchs before him: promoting Confucianism and eradicating Buddhism.The way that Sejong managed to do this was not too dissimilar to King Henry VIIIs dissolution of the monasteries in 16th-century England. He reformed the land system entirely, seizing temple lands and redistributing them for development. As a result, Buddhist monks lost a lot of economic power, which naturally reduced their power to spread their religion. He forbade monks from entering the capital, Hanseong (modern-day Seoul), and he also reduced the seven schools of Buddhism to just two, limiting opportunities for Buddhists to practice their faith.In order to encourage Confucianism, Sejong performed government rites according to Confucian teachings and encouraged the general public to behave according to Confucianism.It was not just Confucians and Buddhists that Sejong dealt with, too. He completely eradicated Islam in the Korean peninsula, which had a lasting effect for centuries.In 1427, he issued a decree against the Huihui (Korean Muslims), who he felt had held special status since the Yuan Dynastys rule over Goryeo in the Korean peninsula in the last century. Sejong retorted by banning Muslim headgear and closing down their ceremonial mosque in Kaesong, forcing them to worship in line with Korean religious practices. In the entire Joseon Era from then onwards (which lasted until 1910) no further records of Muslims existed, suggesting that Sejong had effectively ended Islam in Korea for the next 400 years.Military Expansionism Under Sejong the GreatTsushima Island, photo by Nichika Sakurai. Source: UnsplashThe most famous military foray in Sejongs reign was the final military campaign of Tsushima. This is known as the Gihae Expedition in Korea and the ei Invasion in Japan which says a lot.From June 20 to July 3, 1419, Korean troops were sent to deal with Japanese pirates based off Tsushima, an island about halfway between Japan and Korea in the Korea Strait.245 Japanese were killed or executed during the invasion, a further 110 were captured, while 180 Koreans were killed. A truce was made in July 1419 and the Joseon army returned to the Korean peninsula.The only other major military expansion during Sejong the Greats reign was when he conquered the Jurchens, further north in the far north of modern-day North Korea and southern China. This expedition was a success, and the Korean forces captured numerous fortresses, which helped to expand Sejongs territory to the banks of the Songhua River.Science and Technology Under Sejong the GreatSujeongjeon in the Gyeongbokgung Palace, a building once used by the Hall of Worthies. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs well as the military advancements and religious reforms during his tenure as king of Korea, Sejong was also involved in some huge technological advancements.He was a big believer in promoting science, and in 1420 established the Hall of Worthies within the Gyeongbok Palace, which was a place where the finest thinkers in the kingdom were encouraged to share their ideas. The government also offered grants for budding young scholars to attend.In 1428, Sejong ordered 1,000 copies of a farmers handbook to be published, and in 1429 he published Nongsa Jikseol, which literally translates as Straight Talk on Farming, a compilation on farming methods designed to suit Koreas climate and soil types.The inventor Jang Yeong-Sil was appointed as a court technician by Sejong, and he remained with him for much of his career. In 1434, Jang invented a new type of printing press, powered by copper-zinc and lead-tin alloys, which allegedly worked twice as fast as the previous model, allowing items to be distributed even quicker.Another scientific reform that Sejong ordered during his reign was the redevelopment of the Korean calendar. Initially, it had been based on the longitude of the Chinese capital, but Sejong instead ordered it to use Hanseong (the Joseon capital) as its primary meridian. This in turn allowed Joseon astronomers to accurately predict lunar and solar eclipses.Popular Reforms Under Sejong the GreatFlag of the King of Joseon, c. 1882. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSejong was well ahead of the trend when it came to womens rights. He introduced 100 days of maternity leave for serfs in 1426, which was extended by one month prior to childbirth in 1430. In 1434, he also granted the husbands of pregnant women 30 days of paternity leave.Furthermore, he also realized how important agricultural output was to the Korean economy, so he favored farmers greatly. One notable thing he did was allow them to pay less tax in times of hardship, due to adverse weather conditions ruining crop yields. It was once even claimed that when the palace had a surplus of food, Sejong ordered it to be distributed among the poor.The Development of the HangulHangul on Korean Papers in Isadong. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerhaps the biggest achievement in Sejongs reign, though, was the creation, introduction, and development of the Hangulthe modern Korean alphabet.It is likely that those in the Hall of Worthies developed the Hangul, but even if this was the case, they were under the instruction of Sejong to do soso really, he was responsible for the advancement of the Korean language.Before the Hangul, most Koreans wrote in classical Chinese, so most Korean documents prior to Sejongs reign were written in Chinese. Not only did the introduction of Hangul help to transform Korean history, but it helped to give the Korean people a sense of identity. This worked in the favor of all Korean peoplemost of the poor people in medieval Korean society were illiterate, as they had not received the level of education necessary to learn classical Chinese.Therefore, another purpose of the introduction of Hangul was to promote literacy rates throughout Korea with a language and alphabet system that everyone could understand.Hangul was completed in 1443 and published in 1446, but not without backlash and controversy.Many of the Korean nobility opposed giving peasants the ability to read and write, feeling that their positions could be under threat and that they would be able to find loopholes in the law. Fortunately, Sejong ignored them and proceeded to develop Hangul.After his death, many nobles refused to use Hangul and continued to communicate in classical Chinese, to distinguish themselves. Hangul survived this petty behavior, while other kings outlawed it and then reintroduced it in the following centuries. By 1945, Hangul was the official written language of Korea.Sejongs Death and LegacyThe tomb of Sejong the Great. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor a number of years, Sejongs health had been declining. In 1439, his health worsened, and by 1442, his eldest son, Yi Hyang, served as regent in his fathers stead.Sejong eventually died on April 8, 1450.He was buried alongside his wife who had died four years earlier, and his tomb now lies in Yeoju, South Korea.The legacy that Sejong left behind is unquestionable. He was, without a doubt, the greatest ruler of medieval Korea, and arguably the greatest-ever Korean monarch.From his scientific and technological advancements such as the introduction of new printing presses, to the military campaigns against the Japanese, and the introduction of the Hangul, Sejong certainly deserves to be called the Great.While he is remembered more fondly in South Korea than in North Korea today, one thing can be said about him: he did more to unite Korea as a whole than many of his modern-day successors have.

Written between the 5th and 11th centuries, Old English poetry features a distinct, alliterative structure and was intended to be read aloud. These poems often reflect the social attitudes of Anglo-Saxon society, and they survive in manuscripts and on stone structures. Many Old English poems contain heroic stories about quests, adventures, and battles with monsters. From devious whales to swamp creatures with claws, Old English monsters are fascinating villains.1. The WhaleWhale illustration from Ms. Ludwig XV 3 (83.MR.173), fol. 89v, 1270. Source: Getty Museum CollectionIn 1072, a rich anthology of medieval poetry was donated to Exeter Cathedral. This manuscript is now known as the Exeter Book, one of the best-preserved manuscripts written in Old English. The manuscript contains a range of poems, illustrations, and riddlesincluding an unusual description of a whale. Believed to have been written by a poet called Cynewulf in the 10th century, The Whale is one of the more fantastical poems in the Exeter Book.Cynewulf tells the story of a monstrous sea creature, an animal that disguises itself as an island and waits for sailors to moor themselves to its back before dragging them down to a watery death. Part whale, part turtle, the creature also entices fish into its jaws by emitting a sweet odor from its mouth. Throughout the poem, the poet even compares the creature to Satana villain who entices and punishes those who seek pleasure.Like many medieval poems, The Whale draws upon a pre-existing myth. The legend of the monster is thought to have originated in the Physiologus, a 3rd-century Greek text that describes a range of unusual creatures. Nonetheless, stories and illustrations of the whale can be found in an array of medieval texts. Known as the lyngbakr in Old Norse and the aspidochelone in Greek, the whale was said to have existed in the Greenland Sea in the 13th century and even Alexander the Great is rumored to have encountered the monster while on an expedition to India.Some scholars have also likened the whale to the Sarathan, a large crab that features briefly in a handful of medieval Arabic stories. Like the whale, the Sarathan disguises itself as an island before drowning unsuspecting travelers.Photograph of a whale illustration from Ms. Harley. 3244, f. 60v. Source: British LibraryEnjoy a short passage from a modern English translation of The Whale:Under the salty waves he plunges down,Straight to the bottom deep he drags his prey;He, guest of ocean, in his watery hauntsDrowns ships and men, and fast imprisons themWithin the halls of death.Translated by James Hall Pitman.2. The Creature From Riddle 32The Exeter Book, c. 10th century. Source: Exeter CathedralThe whale isnt the only unusual monster in the Exeter Book. The manuscript is filled to the brim with riddles about medieval objects and animals, and the 32nd riddle describes a rather monstrous creature indeed. With one foot and a large mouth, the answer to the riddle is difficult to decipher. Have a read of this modern English translation of Riddle 32:At times I saw strange contraption move about,grind against the grit, go screaming.The strange creature did not have sight nor hands,shoulders nor arms; on one foot mustthe cunning contraption move, powerfully journey,going over fields. It had many ribs;its mouth was in the middle. Useful to mankind,it bears an abundance of food, works for the people,carries sustenance within, and yields to mentreasure every year that those men enjoy,rich and poor. Tell, if you know,wise and prudent in words, what that creature may be.(Translation from the University of Birminghams Riddle Ages blog)Can you guess the answer? Scroll to the bottom of this article to find out.3. GrendelPhotograph of the opening words from the Beowulf manuscript. Source: The British LibrarySome of the more famous Old English monsters can be found in Beowulf, the oldest surviving piece of English literature. Composed sometime between the 7th and 10th centuries, the poem is a story about the life and adventures of Beowulf, a Scandinavian hero. While scholars have debated the historical existence of Beowulf, the monsters he supposedly battles are fantastical, bizarre, and indisputably fictional.At the beginning of the poem, Beowulf hears that a monster called Grendel is terrorizing a magnificent mead hall in Denmark, attacking and eating warriors while they sleep. In the Medieval Era, monstrous creatures were thought to be descendants of Cain (Adam and Eves murderous son) and Grendel is no exception. He is described as a devil from hell and an evil outcast, emerging from the mist-covered moors with eyes that glow like fire.The poem depicts Grendel as a giant with unnatural strength, however, his physical appearance is largely left to the readers imagination. Modern film adaptations of Beowulf are often experimental with Grendels appearance. The film Beowulf & Grendel (2005) portrays him as a troll-like Neanderthal, while Robert Zemeckis version of Beowulf (2007) presents Grendel as an inhuman, diseased monster. Other adaptations such as Grendel Grendel Grendel (1981) are more forgiving, depicting him as a bumbling orange and green creature.Illustration of Grendel from Stories of Beowulf, by J. R. Skelton, 1908. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBeowulf confronts the monster in the mead hall at night. Grendel feasts on one of the sleeping warriors in the hall, but as he reaches for his next victim, Beowulf seizes the creatures hand with incredible strength. The bones in Grendels fingers crackle and snap. After a violent wrestle, Beowulf tears off Grendels arm and the monster slinks back to his home to die.Academics have suggested that the fight between Beowulf and Grendel symbolizes the struggle between order and chaos. Although Beowulf lives in a pagan society, the poem implies that he fights with Gods favor. Some scholars view the battle with Grendel as a representation of the emerging triumph of Christianity over paganism in early Scandinavian society.4. Grendels MotherGrendels mother from Stories of Beowulf, by J. R. Skelton, 1908. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe only Old English monster more mysterious than Grendel is Grendels mother. Keen to avenge her sons death, Grendels mother begins slaughtering warriors in the night. She remains nameless and her physical appearance is only loosely described, but like her son, Grendels mother is said to be devil-shaped with claws. She lives in an underwater cave lit by a fiery glow.While the poem does not specify whether Grendels mother has a tail, many film adaptations re-imagine her as a mermaid or sea creature. In the 2007 film adaptation of Beowulf, Angelina Jolie portrays her as a shape-shifting seductress with a gold tail, presenting her as an evil temptress rather than a physically repulsive monster. Other adaptations such as Beowulf & Grendel (2005) depict her as a grieving hag with a mixture of human skin and scales.Regardless of her appearance, Beowulf finds Grendels mother to be a difficult monster to defeat. In the Old English poem, it takes Beowulf over a day to swim down to her lair and his sword cannot even pierce her skin. Through a stroke of good luck, his chainmail repels her knife point, and he sees an ancient, powerful sword in the corner of the cave. The weapon is heavy and forged by giants but, ever the hero, Beowulf manages to wield the sword and pierce Grendels mothers neck.As both a woman and a monster, Grendels mother is thought to be Beowulfs most interesting adversary. While Grendel is presented as a straightforward villain, his mothers maternal vengeance makes her a more unusual, complex monster.5. The DragonDragons Hoard, by Stephen Hickman, 1985. Source: University of Notre DameAfter the defeat of Grendels mother, Beowulf returns home to be crowned King of the Geats (a Northern Germanic tribe). His rule is peaceful until, 50 years later, an escaped slave wanders into a dragons lair and steals a piece of its treasure. The dragon is a greedy, powerful beast and it retaliates by flying over Beowulfs land, burning houses and crops with its fiery breath. Even Beowulfs own hall is blackened and burnt.Like many dragons in Germanic folklore, the monster lives in a hidden underground barrow and sleeps atop a glamorous hoard of treasure. The Beowulf poet undoubtedly took inspiration from traditional Germanic dragonsgreedy, venomous snakes and wyrms (serpents). However, these dragons were often unable to fly or breathe fire, and scholars have suggested that Beowulf is one of the first poems to combine elements from Old Norse and European dragon myths.Beowulf and the Dragon, from Stories of Beowulf, by J. R. Skelton, 1908. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Beowulf dragon has proven to be an influential monster, forming the basis for modern-day depictions of dragons in fantasy novels and films. It even inspired J.R.R. Tolkiens The Hobbit, and his character Smaug is thought to be a re-imagining of the Beowulf dragon.In the original poem, Beowulf travels to the dragons lair with his fellow warriors. After a violent struggle in the barrow, all except one of Beowulfs companions flee him and he suffers a venomous bite to the neck. In desperation, he plunges his knife into the dragons stomach and deals a fatal blow. As the dragons venom seeps into Beowulfs blood, his last companion brings him an armful of treasure to gaze upon as he dies.Have a read of this short translation from Rutgers University-Camdens Old English Poetry Project. This passage describes the dragons attack on Beowulfs land.Then the alien spirit began to spew flaming breath,burning the bright halls. A burning light stood tall,a horror to all humans. The hated wind-flier wishedto leave nothing alive there. The wyrms warfarewas plain to see, the cruelly-hostile malice,from near and far how the battle-harmerhated and harassed the Geatish people.It rushed back to its hoard, its secret halljust before daytime.Riddle 32: Acceptable answers include wheelbarrow, ship, wagon, and millstone!

1803 Louisiana Purchase Map. Source: Bureau of Land ManagementThe American Old West brings to mind images of stagecoaches, small dusty towns, horses and cattle, cowboys and Indians, gunfights, gold, and the desire, spirit, and dream of independence, freedom, and self-sufficiency. These elements are critical to the development of American culture, and they have remained a core component in American mythology, depicted in a wide range of books, movies, art, and theatre.The Old West, aka The Wild WestFeared gangs from the Wild West.The Old West, sometimes referred to as the Wild West, as well as the American Frontier, applies to both a particular place and time of American History. It generally refers to the period of time between the exploration of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 by Lewis and Clark to about the time period when New Mexico and Arizona were admitted to the union.Early Years and the Foundations of the Old WestDeadwood City 1877. Source: City of DeadwoodWhile the exploration of the American West beyond the Mississippi River began in 1804, the Spanish had long been in areas such as California and Texas since the time of the conquistadors. The Old West period that most commonly comes to mind began not long after the end of the American Civil War, when the United States Census bureau began the process of ending the recording of western frontier settlement as there was little frontier left.The Rise and Fall of the Old WestSettlers in the Old West during the 1870s. Source: PinterestIn the years that followed, settlements rose throughout the west, all the way to the Pacific Coast. Westward movement had practically ceased by the late 1800s.While no clear demarcation or even occurs that ended the Old West, the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907, and New Mexico and Arizona in 1912 are generally the time considered the ending of the Old West. The population of those territories had risen enough for statehood, and civilization had reached enough of the Western areas that some of the characteristics which defined the Old West were dying out. One other event which signifies the ending of the Old West is the Jarbidge Stage Robbery on December 5, 1916.The Jarbidge Stage RobberyMugshot of Ben Kuhl, who carried out the Jarbidge stagecoach robbery. Courtesy Nevada State Library, Archives and Public RecordsThe Jarbidge Stage Robbery was the last stagecoach robbery in the United States, occurring on December 5, 1916 near Jarbidge, Nevada. Ben Kuhl, a petty criminal with some history, robbed a US Mail stagecoach traveling from Rogerson, Idaho to the isolated mining town of Jarbridge, Nevada. Kuhl would steal $4,000 in gold coins and cash (modern value over $100,000), and shoot and kill the driver, Fred Searcy. The money has never been found, probably buried somewhere in Jarbridge Canyon, and is one of the final legends of the Old West.Jarbidge, a Nevada mining town, population around 1,000, earned fame when a holdup brought about the first palm print introduced as evidence in a U.S. court. Source: True West ArchivesAs with many of the tales of the Old West, the story of the Jarbridge Stage Robbery combines a final idea of the Old West that may often be overlooked that of continuing progress. Ben Kuhl would be the first criminal in the United States in which a palm print would be used as evidence against him; Kuhls palm print would be matched to an envelope found at the scene.Mythology and MoviesClint Eastwood in Sergio Leones classic Western The Good the Bad, and the Ugly, 1966. Source: Screen RantThe stories and legends regarding the Old West generally revolve around the settlement of the frontier west of the Mississippi River by Americans, and particularly focus on the time period following the American Civil War.These elements of the Old West have been mythologized in the American conscience through movies, art, theatre and books, particularly from the 1930s through to the early 1970s by actors such as John Wayne, Clint Eastwood and Gary Cooper, and by authors like Louis LAmour and Zane Grey. In fact, it could be argued that the time period of westerns has even lasted longer than the Old West itself.

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