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Enslaved Africans in Brazil who managed to escape the plantations and harsh labor systems took refuge in difficult-to-access areas outside of Portuguese control and formed communities, quilombos. Here, they not only managed to survive but also to rebuild the social and cultural structures of their African roots. Over time, they also developed alternative models of sustainable development. These quilombos, which endure to this day, have become a symbol of both freedom and resistance.Brazilian Slavery and the Emergence of QuilombosIllustration depicting slavery in Brazil from the book Voyage Pittoresque et Historique au Brsil (Paris, 834-39), by Jean-Baptiste Debret. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe first centuries of colonial occupation in the Americas were accompanied by the rapid imposition of slavery. At first, colonizers in the Americas, mostly Spaniards and Portuguese, forced the Indigenous population into labor. However, due to the new diseases brought by Europeans, the exhaustive working conditions, and the rampant violence against them, many ended up dying, decimating a large part of the Indigenous population.It was deemed necessary to import African slaves to carry out work in mines and on plantations, initiating the transatlantic slave trade, a network between Africa, Europe, and the Americas, bringing enslaved Africans to the Caribbean and the rest of the American continent. In Brazil, the discovery of alluvial gold on the banks of the Ribeira de Iguape River lured prospectors, known as garimpeiros, to the frontier in the mid-seventeenth century. So Paulos first group of West African slaves arrived as laborers for the emerging gold rush.Negros in the Cellar of a Slave Boat, Johann Moritz Rugendas, circa 1830. Lithograph. Source: Museo Ita CulturalAs soon as the slaves began to arrive, they sought to escape, actively resisting the inhumane labor conditions, violence, and oppression. Geography worked in their favor, as mountainous regions, dense forests, rivers, caves, and cliffs provided hiding spots difficult for colonial authorities to find. Ingeniously, escaped slaves began to establish clandestine villages near tropical forests and along riverbanks, which allowed them a degree of independence. In this way, they not only escaped the slave system but also rebuilt social, cultural, religious, and economic structures similar to their African roots. They offered an alternative to the slave-plantation system based on communal ownership of land and family labor.During the colonial period, references to these settlements can be found in Brazil as early as the 16th century under the name mocambos and, from the late 17th century, as quilombos. These terms originated in Central Africa and referred to camps or villages. Quilombos can be defined as communities of fugitive slaves that were formed in various parts of Latin America and the Caribbean, with the majority of them located in Brazil.Way of Life in the QuilombosQuilombo Cangume, Itaca, Luis Eduardo Tavares, 2004. Source: FlickrQuilombos were generally divided into two areas: the residential space, where family homes were surrounded by a garden and areas for raising pigs and fruit trees, and the communal farming areas known as capuovas. These agricultural plots were part of a shifting cultivation system, where some areas were used communally while others were distributed among families based on the rule that whoever cleared and farmed the land had the right to use it as long as needed. Additionally, they had mobile huts made from easily accessible materials like wood and straw, allowing farmers to stay near the crops during planting seasons, intense work periods such as weeding, or when it was necessary to move to a new plot. These huts were easily dismantled and relocated, reinforcing a sense of collectivity, self-sufficiency, and respect for nature.Due to their remote and isolated locations, the production of basic food supplies was indispensable for ensuring sustainability and independence. As a result, they developed a system based on staple crops, which are essential for a communitys diet and provide the bulk of its calories and nutrients. Unlike the monocultures worked by former slaves, quilombos practiced polyculture using ancestral methods like crop rotation and slash-and-burn farming. Among the most important foods in their diet were rice, beans, corn, cassava, and sweet potatoes.Quilombo Cangume, Itaca, Luis Eduardo Tavares, 2004. Source: FlickrThe case of cassava is particularly interesting, as it was considered a staple food in Brazil, especially for African slaves and Indigenous peoples. Often referred to as the Brazilian bread, its durability made it a vital resource for long journeys. Moreover, it played a fundamental role in the quilombos economy, where cassava was planted and later harvested, ground, sieved, and baked into flour and other derivatives.Cassava had the additional advantage of being a root crop that could be left in the ground, making it nearly invisible and discreeta critical feature for these fugitive slave communities that needed to avoid detection by colonial authorities. This tuber could remain underground for long periods, acting as a natural pantry, which also provided the freedom to move and eat as needed. Lastly, in these remote and hostile areas, cassava required little maintenance and was highly resilient. This demonstrates how the relationship between people and crops extends far beyond a simple agricultural choice. In this case, it became a tool of resistance and freedom.History of Quilombo dos PalmaresSouthern Part of the Province of Pernambuco, Frans Post, 1647. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the most emblematic quilombos was Palmares, which began in the mid-16th century in what are now the states of Pernambuco and Alagoas. This refuge was more than a survival gathering or a hiding place; it became a symbol of struggle and resistance that endures to this day. Its social organization, based on communal structures and collective leadership, set an important precedent in the fight for the rights, dignity, and autonomy of Afro-descendant communities in Brazil.It was common for quilombos, such as Palmares, to be established in interior regions of the continent, far from Portuguese control and difficult to access. The Portuguese, in turn, concentrated their presence along coastal areas where plantations, particularly sugartheir main export productwere located. Being close to the sea also facilitated the transportation of goods to Europe and the maintenance of slave trade routes. Moreover, due to the challenges of access and lack of economic incentives, colonial authorities rarely ventured into the continents interior, making these regions ideal refuges for fugitive slaves. These escapees took advantage of the natural protection offered by the wilderness, with its remote and difficult-to-navigate paths.Bust of Zumbi dos Palmares, leader of the Quilombo dos Palmares, in Braslia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Dutch invasion and the resistance of the Luso-Pernambucans allowed a significant number of slaves to escape from the sugar mills to Palmares. After the Dutch expulsion, the destruction from the war left the plantations weakened, while Palmares flourished as a refuge for free slaves, even forming a quilombo confederation, a rudimentary state, under the leadership of Ganga-Zumba. At its peak, this community of former slaves reached a population of 20,000, a surprising number considering that Rio de Janeiro had only 7,000 inhabitants at the time.Colonial authorities carried out various attacks and military expeditions, though with very little success, as the internal cohesion of the quilombos allowed them to repel the assaults. Plantation owners had to restart the costly importation of African slaves, ultimately accepting a kind of truce. However, it did not last long; the intensity of the attacks on Palmares revealed the inability of the slaveholders to coexist with an organization of free producers and the internal cohesion of the Palmares formation.People celebrating Black Awareness Day at Parque Memorial Quilombo dos Palmares, by Janine Moraes, 2000. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter multiple encounters and battles between both sides, by the late 1670s, the war had tilted in favor of the colonists. As a result, leader Ganga-Zumba accepted the amnesty offered to him, a decision that sparked strong opposition among the quilombo inhabitants, fracturing the unity that had been so crucial. Shortly after, Ganga-Zumba was poisoned, and his nephew Zumbi, a prominent leader in previous offensives, took command. Zumbi refused to accept any deals.The colonial authorities had to change their strategy and join forces to launch a major offensive. In 1694, an army of 9,000 men besieged the quilombo of Macaco, the largest at the time. After weeks, the technological superiority of the artillery and colonial organization eventually prevailed: powerful cannons destabilized the confrontation, the quilombo was devastated, and the battles turned into a massacre. Zumbi was captured, and his head was severed and displayed on a pole until it rotted. Despite the defeat and the definitive end of the Quilombo dos Palmares, it marked a milestone in the struggle for freedom. Today, Zumbi remains a symbol of resistance, and his death is commemorated in Brazil as Black Consciousness Day.The Quilombo LegacyQuilombo Linharinho, Fabiola Melca, 2011. Source: FlickrThe quilombos emerged as a means of survival; however, they also became a space and symbol of freedom and resistance against the oppressor. They confronted not only the slave system but also transformed the landscape in ways that challenged the plantation and mining economies central to Brazils social, political, and moral order. These communities were not idyllic scenes of equality, as they also reproduced internal power dynamics, but they symbolized the constant struggle for autonomy in the face of a deeply rooted slave system in Brazil for over three centuries.Quilombos have remained to the present day, with the abolition of slavery in 1888 and the constitutional recognition of their rights in 1988. They continue to keep their cultural roots alive, a fusion of African, mestizo, and Indigenous influences, with an alternative model of sustainable development based on the respectful use of natural resources, family agriculture, low-impact farming, and ancestral knowledge. They emerged as a response to historical exploitation dynamics and a colonial extractivist model, but today, they reflect the ongoing relevance of spaces like these as grounds for resistance and reclamation in current socio-spatial struggles, linking their campaigns with contemporary demands for environmental justice and those of their ancestors for land and subsistence rights. They have not only reclaimed their history but also offer an alternative, more just, and environmentally friendly future.

In March 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte assumed command of Frances Army of Italy. Revolutionary Frances government, the Directory, prioritized their forces fighting in Germany. In other words, Napoleons army tasked with invading northern Italy was initially more of a diversion in the larger military picture. However, Napoleons resounding victories over Piedmontese and Austrian forces soon captured the Directorys attention and the public imagination in France. Within months of assuming command, the twenty-six-year-old Napoleon won a series of impressive battles and established the foundation of a successful propaganda machine to boost his image in France.Historical Context of Napoleons Italian CampaignsThe Battle of Valmy, September 20, 1792 by Horace Vernet, 1826. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe first of several coalitions formed against revolutionary and later Napoleonic France took shape in 1792. Historian David Bell notes that French forces successfully resisted a Prussian attack at Valmy in September 1792 (2019, p. 12-13). As a result, a large coalition army of Prussians and Austrians supported by a French royalist force halted their invasion of France.However, other European states organized a coordinated resistance to the nascent French Republic. Austria and Prussia were joined by the Dutch, British, Spanish, and several German and Italian states, including Piedmont and Naples.By 1795, France conquered the Low Countries (Belgium and the Netherlands). Prussia and Spain made peace with France in the same year. Moreover, the French government planned a multi-pronged offensive against its most dangerous rival in the First Coalition, Austria.The French Republic had multiple armies poised to strike against Austria in Germany as well as an army in northern Italy. As the Army of Italys artillery commander, Napoleon intensely studied maps and surveyed the landscape in northern Italy that would become the site of his legendary 1796 campaign.Napoleon Takes CommandEngraving of Napoleon Bonaparte as a General c. 1796 by R.A. Bartolozzi after Appiani, c. 1901. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOnly sixteen years after entering a military academy as a cadet, Napoleon, in March 1796, was on the verge of leading an army on the battlefield as a commanding general. David Bell explains that at the time of his appointment, Napoleon was a national hero for his role in recapturing Toulon in 1793. His fame and reputation grew after defeating a royalist uprising in Paris in 1795. But in 1796, Napoleon was still one of several popular French generals. However, in under four years, Napoleon, at age 30, would be Frances ruler (2019, p. 27).Unfortunately for Napoleon, the present state of the Army of Italy was nowhere near as impressive as his personal meteoric rise. As historian Gregory Fremont-Barnes notes, the Directory largely neglected the Army of Italy at the expense of the other French field armies (2001, p. 37-38). For instance, the army lacked supplies like muskets and cannons, and some soldiers did not even have shoes.As a result of this official neglect, the Army of Italy dwindled from roughly 100,000 troops to just 38,000. The French faced two enemy forces in northern Italy. Austrian commander General Johann Beulieu had roughly 30,000 troops scattered in the vicinity of Milan. Around the Piedmontese capital of Turin, General Colli commanded an army of about 25,000.Piedmont was an uncomfortable ally of Austria, as the two states had long competed for control of northern Italy. However, a mutual fear and disgust with revolutionary France brought Piedmont and Austria together in the coalition to defeat the French.Opening MovesPortrait of Louis-Alexandre Berthier, field marshal, chief of staff in 1792 by Franois Gabriel Guillaume Lpaulle, 1834. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistorian Jeremy Black explains that Napoleon developed key characteristics of his generalship in the 1796 campaign, including rapid movement, self-confidence, decisive decision-making, and concentration of strength (2018, p. 122). In what would also become a familiar tactic, Napoleon set out to split coalition forces and defeat each opponent piecemeal.In this case, Napoleon planned to prevent Austrian and Piedmontese forces from combining against the French. Once wedged between the Austrian and Piedmontese, Napoleon would first move against the Piedmontese before turning to destroy the Austrian army.The uneasy Austrian-Piedmontese alliance contributed to the likelihood Napoleons plan would be met with success. For instance, Austrian and Piedmontese commanders had different strategic goals. For the Piedmontese, the strategic priority involved defending their capital, Turin, at all costs. Beaulieu and the Austrians, on the other hand, had to defend Milan and the line of communication back to Vienna.Napoleons chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier, provided invaluable assistance in preparing and managing the campaign. Along with several other future marshals of Napoleons empire, including Jean Lannes, Andr Massna, and Joachim Murat, Berthier became a close associate of Napoleon and distinguished himself in the 1796 campaign. Berthier rapidly scoured the southern French countryside for supplies to sustain the neglected Army of Italy.Rejuvenated by Berthiers logistical efforts, the Army of Italy received another boost from Napoleons next move. Napoleon knew the armys morale would improve by taking the field against the Austrians and Piedmontese. As historian Andrew Roberts notes, Napoleon moved his army forward to Albenga on the Gulf of Genoa on April 5, 1796 (2014, p. 81).Napoleon Routs PiedmontChef de Brigade Rampon at the Defense of Monte Legino during the Battle of Montenotte, 1796 by Ren Thodore Berthon, 1812. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Napoleon moved his forces forward, Beaulieu sent Austrian troops westward to link up with Collis Piedmontese. Historian Gunther Rothenburg explains that in the twelve-day period between April 10 and 22, Napoleon crushed Piedmontese forces and won several battles against the Austrians (1999, p. 40).As Roberts points out, although Napoleon was taken by surprise by the initial Austrian and Piedmontese movements on April 10, he soon regained the initiative. By the evening of April 11, the French had routed Austrian troops at Montenotte (2014, p. 83). Montenotte was Napoleons first victory as a commanding general.Napoleon continued his attack the next day by winning the Battle of Millesimo. The French were now wedged between the retreating Austrians and Piedmontese as Napoleon intended. On April 14, Roberts notes that Napoleon defeated an Austro-Piedmontese force at Dego (2014, p. 84).Just one week later, on April 22, Napoleon routed Piedmontese troops at the Battle of Mondovi. According to Rothenburg, a disoriented Piedmontese command sued for peace the following day at Cherasco. By April 28, Piedmont had been knocked out of the war (1999, p. 41).Meanwhile, Beaulieus Austrians were forced to abandon Milan thanks to Napoleons rapid march eastwards toward the city. French troops caught up to the retreating Austrian rearguard at Lodi on May 10.Although considered a minor battle, Lodi demonstrated the bravery and skill of Napoleon and many of his senior commanders. As David Bell notes, Napoleon allegedly personally helped direct the French artillery fire and risked his life like a common soldier, which gave rise to his nickname, the Little Corporal (2019, p. 33).The Quadrilateral: Attacking Austrias Italian FortressPortrait of Andr Massna in the Uniform of Lieutenant Colonel in the Var Battalion, 1792 by Ferdinand Wachsmuth. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleons victory at Lodi led to the French capture of Milan. The citys loss was a serious blow to Austrias prestige in the region.Austria dominated northern Italy since the early eighteenth century, thanks in large part to its control of four fortified cities. The four citiesMantua, Legnano, Peschiera, and Veronacollectively made up the defensive system known as the Quadrilateral. Control of the Quadrilateral guaranteed the Austrians dominance over the area between the Alps and the River Po.French forces battled the Austrians for control of the Quadrilateral throughout 1796 and early 1797. In June 1796, Napoleon ordered French forces to besiege Mantua. In response, Austrian forces rallied to relieve Mantua.A large Austrian relief army under Count Dagobert Sigismund von Wurmser fought Napoleons troops at the battles of Castiglione and Bassano in August and September 1796. Despite the defeats, Wurmsers army made it to Mantua. However, they were now trapped in the city.Austrian Field Marshal Joseph Alvinczi led another relief force to break the French siege of Mantua. According to Andrew Roberts, Alvinczis army initially had success against Napoleons troops. Indeed, Alvinczi inflicted a minor defeat on Napoleon at the second Battle of Bassano on November 8 (2014, p. 120).After another inconclusive fight at Caldiero, French troops won a hotly contested victory over Austrian forces in the three-day Battle of Arcole in November 1796. Roberts explains that while Napoleon was not present when the vital bridge at Arcole was finally taken, he demonstrated exceptional bravery during one unsuccessful charge (2014, p. 122-123).The Battle of RivoliNapoleon at the Battle of Rivoli, 14 January 1797 by Henri Flix Emmanuel Philippoteaux, 1844. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe exhausted armies rested as winter approached after the heavy fighting of November 1796. Yet, Austrian officials in Vienna were determined to resist the French siege of Mantua at all costs. As a result, additional Austrian forces were ordered into Italy to come to Mantuas aid.As Andrew Roberts explains, the situation in Mantua was dire in the winter of 1796-1797. In fact, an estimated 9,000 civilians had died of disease and starvation. The Austrian garrison fared little better. Yet, the city continued to resist the French (2014, p. 125).Alvinczi hoped to concentrate the reinforced Austrian army near Verona at Rivoli. Yet, as Roberts points out, he was unable to link up with other Austrian columns before Napoleon arrived to face him on January 14, 1797 (2014, p. 127).According to David Bell, Napoleon won the Battle of Rivoli thanks to the quick redeployment of his forces (2019, p. 30). Once again, his decisive decision-making and emphasis on speed carried the day for France.Mantua finally surrendered early the following month. France had seized the Quadrilateral. Napoleon soon pressed on to take the war deep into Austrian territory.With French forces only seventy miles from Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace. The subsequent treaties of Loeben and Campo Formio in April and October 1797 gave France extensive control over much of the Italian peninsula.The First Coalition War was effectively over. Only Britain remained a threat to French interests. However, Frances enemies would not have to wait long to renew the conflict.The Second Coalition and MarengoThe Battle of Marengo, 1800 by Louis-Franois, Baron Lejeune, 1802. Source: Wikimedia CommonsA renewed coalition effort in 1798-1799 erased French gains in northern Italy. At the time, Napoleon was in Egypt and, therefore, unable to return to defend French interests in Italy. At the core of this Second Coalition stood Austrian and Russian military coordination in Italy and Switzerland.Russias Tsar Paul I sent his most able commander, Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov, to lead the Austro-Russian forces. As historian David Hollins explains, Suvorov and the Austrian commander, Field Marshal Michael von Melas, quickly captured Milan. The Austro-Russian forces followed this up with a victory at Novi on August 15, 1799. As a result, French troops were in full retreat (2000, p. 9).Within days, Napoleon secretly set out to return to France from Egypt. Yet, by the time he returned, Frances military situation had stabilized. Indeed, by November 1799, Paul ordered Suvorov and Russian forces to return to Russia. That same month, Napoleon led a successful coup against the unpopular Directory. The next time he would arrive on a battlefield, Napoleon would be First Consul, Frances undisputed ruler.Napoleon had a familiar foe in Austrian troops to contend with in 1800. As Hollins notes, Napoleons plan of attack involved a daring crossing of the Alps without alerting the Austrians to the presence of this French army (2000, p. 28-29). While accomplished and immortalized in famous works of art, the Austrians moved faster than Napoleon anticipated.French and Austrian forces collided at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800. In a dramatic seesaw fight, Napoleons troops finally prevailed.AftermathNapoleon Bonaparte Reviewing Austrian Prisoners, 1797 by Edouard Detaille, 1883. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe French followed up the victory at Marengo with another defeat of Austrian forces at Hohenlinden in December 1800.The February 1801 Treaty of Lunville ended this conflict between Austria and France. Among the treatys stipulations, France annexed several German territories west of the Rhine. As a result, historian Frederick Kagan points out that Lunville effectively dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, though the institution would survive until 1806 (2006, p. 18).Britain and France finally made peace at Amiens in 1802. The French Revolutionary Wars were over. As Fremont-Barnes notes, Frances victory over the first two coalitions resulted in the countrys dominance of Europe on land. Yet, Britain remained firmly in control of the seas, and rival powers like Austria, Prussia, and Russia eagerly sought to avenge defeats to France (2001, p. 9).Legacy of Napoleons Italian CampaignsNapoleon at The Battle of Arcole Bridge by Horace Vernet, 1826. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNapoleons experience in Italy profoundly impacted his future military and political career. For starters, the victorious campaigns against Austria and Italian states like Piedmont enhanced his celebrity status in France.Beyond the vital experience that Napoleon gained as a commander on the battlefield, Italy also offered Napoleon a chance to govern and cultivate his public image. According to Jeremy Black, Napoleons administrative efforts in Italy influenced the development of future Napoleonic satellite states across areas of Europe conquered by France (2018, p. 126).While in Italy, Napoleon established a newspaper for the army. However, this paper was about more than sharing important military news with his soldiers. Indeed, Napoleon also distributed the paper in Paris to shape public opinion. Although often exaggerated, the bulletins stories reveal that Napoleon was popular with his soldiers and the French public. Napoleons propaganda efforts in Italy showed the extent to which he was personally involved in shaping public perception of the young French general.Napoleonic propaganda from Italy helped shape many myths and legends surrounding Napoleons life and career. This propaganda went far beyond the stories in the army newspaper. For example, many paintings of Napoleons victories in Italy were also geared towards enhancing his public image. Indeed, artists like Jacques-Louis David would go on to provide many visual representations of Napoleons legendary exploits.Moreover, French rule and influence sparked a surge of Italian nationalism. In fact, many scholars associate this period with the origins of Italian Unification or the Risorgimento of the mid-nineteenth century.References and Further ReadingBell, D. (2019). Napoleon: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.Black, J. (2018). A Brief History of Italy. Robinson.Fremont-Barnes, G. (2001). The French Revolutionary Wars. Osprey.Hollins, D. (2000). The Battle of Marengo, 1800: Napoleons Day of Fate. Osprey.Kagan, F. (2006). The End of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe, 1801-1805. Da Capo.Roberts, A. (2014). Napoleon the Great. Penguin.Rothenburg, G. (1999). The Napoleonic Wars. Cassell.

American Patriots referred to the years 1779 and 1780 during the Revolutionary War (1775-1783) as the Dark Days. Indeed, the American cause faced numerous setbacks during this period. For instance, American general Benedict Arnolds stunning treason nearly resulted in losing the strategic position of West Point, New York. Moreover, historian Walter Edgar (2001) notes that the Patriots lost two armies in the South between May and August of 1780. But in October 1780, a motley force of Patriot militia delivered a victory at Kings Mountain to restore American fortunes. Kings Mountain set in motion the course of events leading to the decisive Franco-American victory at the siege of Yorktown in October 1781.The American Revolution as a Civil War?Continental Army Soldiers by H. Charles McBarron, c. 1782. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPatriot militia surrounded Loyalist forces encamped on Kings Mountain, South Carolina, in the afternoon of October 7, 1780. As they prepared to fight that day, many combatants recognized they were about to face off against family members and neighbors. In fact, historian J. David Dameron (2003) says no less than 18 sets of fathers and sons fought at Kings Mountain. While some served side by side, others took part in the battle on opposing sides. In some instances, the men were unaware they had relatives on the other side of the battlefield.Americas Revolutionary War was more than a struggle for independence from British imperial rule. Indeed, after 1778, Britains efforts to defeat the American rebellion were only part of a larger global conflict with France, Spain, and the Netherlands. However, the war was also a civil war in British North America.Like the 1777 Battle of Oriskany, the fighting on Kings Mountain overwhelmingly pitted family members and neighbors from the local community against one another. In other words, these were intensely personal battles that did not involve the wars larger regular armies. Yet, battles like Kings Mountain played a significant role in determining the wars outcome as well as the future of North America.British Strategy in the Southern ColoniesWashington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth by Emanuel Leutze c. 1851-1854. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBritish forces attempted to weaken Patriot influence across the South before 1779. However, British efforts to that point had ended in disaster. For example, historian Rick Atkinson points out that Patriot victories at Great Bridge, Virginia, Moores Creek Bridge, North Carolina, and Charleston, South Carolina, in 1775-1776 stifled British and Loyalist activities across the South. Patriot militia also halted Loyalist advances in the South Carolina backcountry at Fort Ninety-Six in November 1775.British commander Sir Henry Clinton altered his strategy following Frances entry into the war and military stalemate in the northern theater after the June 1778 Battle of Monmouth Courthouse. Instead of seeking a decisive battle with George Washingtons main Continental Army around New York, Clinton shifted British efforts to the southern colonies.British officials in London and North America now saw France as their primary opponent. As a result, they envisioned most future military campaigns would take place in the West Indies, fighting to control lucrative sugar islands like Guadeloupe. Clinton and other British leaders believed the war against France in North America required control of port cities in the American South like Charleston.At the same time, securing these southern ports to help fight the French in the Caribbean could simultaneously improve British chances of suppressing the American rebellion. Throughout the Revolutionary War, British officials believed most of the American population would join the British army or otherwise aid the effort to end the rebellion. According to this view, British troops would be welcomed as liberators anywhere they marched.The American Revolution in the SouthThe Siege of Charleston, 1780. Source: American Battlefield TrustThe fighting around the northern and mid-Atlantic colonies in 1775-1778 did not produce the anticipated American enthusiasm for the British army. However, the story in the Carolinas and Georgia had been different.Certain demographic features help explain the prevalence of loyalism in the South. In the regions interior, many recent immigrants from Scotland and present-day Germany remained loyal to the British Crown or sought to stay neutral. Even Georgia and South Carolinas Patriots had been among the most hesitant to declare independence from Britain in 1776.Yet, British forces did not arrive in large numbers to support these loyal communities. That changed in late 1778. Savannah, Georgia, became the initial British target in the southern theater of war.British forces quickly captured Savannah in December 1778. A Franco-American force failed to recapture the city the following year and retreated to Charleston.In December 1779, Sir Henry Clinton sailed from New York with a British army intending to capture Charleston. American commander Benjamin Lincoln surrendered Charleston to Clinton after a prolonged siege in May 1780. Dameron notes it was the largest American surrender of the war.Clinton did not continue the campaign in South Carolina. Instead, he returned to New York and left Lord Charles Cornwallis in command.Cornwallis and TarletonPortrait of Sir Banastre Tarleton (1754-1833) by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1782. Source: Wikimedia CommonsClinton ordered Cornwallis to establish a heavy British military presence in the interior or backcountry of South Carolina. Clinton was confident that the armys arrival would attract additional Loyalist volunteers. Moreover, Cornwallis sent cavalry commander Banastre Tarleton and his feared British Legion to pursue the remaining Patriot forces in South Carolina.A column of Virginia troops under Abraham Buford arrived in South Carolina too late to aid the Patriots in Charleston, besieged by Clintons army. Tarletons British Legion caught up to Bufords troops at the frontier settlement of Waxhaws. The result was a controversial massacre. Tarletons troops cut down Bufords men, who raised a white flag of surrender.While the exact details are disputed, Tarletons refusal to take prisoners became known to Patriots as Tarletons Quarter. As historian John W. Gordon notes (2003), regardless of what happened, Patriot propagandists seized on the imagery of Tarletons brutality to gather support for the resistance to British occupation in the Carolinas and Georgia.Cornwallis followed Clintons victory at Charleston by destroying a second American army at Camden, South Carolina, in August 1780. In three months, the Americans lost two armies in South Carolina.British forces in South Carolina thus appeared poised to reconquer the entire South for King George III.Patrick Ferguson: The British BulldogPhotograph of a Ferguson pattern rifle. Source: Matthew Moss / Journal of the American RevolutionBefore he returned to New York, Clinton created an independent command designed to oversee the recruitment and training of a Loyalist militia force in the South. He named Major Patrick Ferguson of the 71st Highlanders to the position of Inspector of Militia in the Southern Provinces.Patrick Ferguson was born to an aristocratic family in Scotland in 1744. He was one of the British militarys most well-known and accomplished figures serving in America. His distinguished military career dated back to the Seven Years War.While recovering from a series of illnesses in the late 1760s, Ferguson became interested in studying firearms. In time, he designed a revolutionary breech-loading rifle. The rifles design enabled rapid reloading and the ability to fire from the prone position. Even King George III was impressed after witnessing a demonstration of Fergusons invention.In 1777, Ferguson commanded an elite company armed with his rifles. However, after being wounded at the Battle of Brandywine, Fergusons unit was disbanded. Although he lost the use of his right arm, Ferguson learned how to fire and use a sword with his left hand. He also equipped himself with a loud whistle to issue commands.As Inspector of Militia, Ferguson developed a force of 4,000 well-trained Loyalists. Fergusons troops affectionately called him the Bulldog for his determination. His second in command, New Yorker Abraham DePeyster, became known as the Bulldogs Pup.Fergusons troops were poised to mop up any remaining Patriot militia and support Cornwallis efforts to reassert British authority across the South.Fergusons Opponents: The Overmountain MenEngraving of Francis Marion, 1775. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPatriots across the South were reeling from British victories in 1779 and 1780. However, Tarletons brutality at Waxhaws and Fergusons threats to lay waste any community supporting the rebellion spurred a Patriot military response.Groups of irregular Patriot forces known as partisans succeeded in harassing British supply lines and outposts. Led by men like the Swamp Fox Francis Marion and the Carolina Gamecock Thomas Sumter, partisans led Tarleton and other British commanders on a dangerous chase through the South Carolina wilderness.Many Scots-Irish settlers in communities like Waxhaws had extensive kinship networks across the backcountry region. Historian Walter Edgar notes that Scots-Irish settlers tended to be deeply religious Presbyterians and resistant to the British Crowns authority. They were motivated to respond like the partisans to the British and Loyalist attacks. Many Scots Irish thus joined militia groups that attacked the British and Loyalists, including those who fought at Kings Mountain.Patriot militia from the Carolinas, Virginia, and present-day Tennessee, collectively known as the Overmountain Men, prepared to pursue Fergusons force. Many Patriot volunteers came from settlements across the Blue Ridge Mountains, hence the term Overmountain Men.William Campbell became the forces overall commander. According to Dameron, Campbell was among the first Virginians to join the Continental Army in 1775. However, he soon returned to the Virginia frontier as a colonel in the militia.Several capable militia commanders, including John Sevier and Isaac Shelby, joined Campbell. Sevier and Shelby had years of experience fighting the British and their Native American allies on the frontier.The Road to Kings MountainReproduction of Gathering of Overmountain Men at Sycamore Shoals by Lloyd Branson, 1921. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn late September, the main groups of Patriot militia met at Sycamore Shoals on the Watauga River (near present-day Elizabethton, Tennessee). As author Wilma Dykeman notes (1978), the Patriots were motivated by Fergusons proclamation, threatening to march his army over the mountains, hang their leaders, and lay their country waste with fire and sword.But before he would carry out that threat, Fergusons troops raided the interior of North Carolina and acquired additional Loyalist volunteers. Although Fergusons force gathered strength, this also gave the Patriot militia time to organize and mount a pursuit.Additional militia from North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia joined the Overmountain men as they prepared to track down Fergusons Loyalists. According to Dameron, Campbells overall Patriot force now numbered over 900.For his part, Ferguson became isolated from other British and Loyalist forces in the region. He took a defensive position on Kings Mountain and sought reinforcements from Cornwallis, Tarleton, or additional Loyalist units.However, historian John Gordon says Ferguson soon learned reinforcements would not be available. He had a force of 1,075 on Kings Mountain.The Battle of Kings Mountain: Opening MovesMap of the Battle of Kings Mountain, October 7, 1780. Source: American Battlefield TrustThe Patriots caught up with Fergusons troops at Kings Mountain on the South Carolina side of the Carolina border on October 6, 1780. Campbell and the other militia commanders agreed to a plan of attack for the following day. The Patriots would surround the mountain base and gradually move up to encircle the Loyalists.Concealed by the thick forest, the Patriots inched closer to Fergusons position undetected. Dameron notes that the battle began at around two on the afternoon of October 7, 1780.Loyalist officer Anthony Allaire mentioned that Ferguson covered his British uniform with a distinctive checked shirt and remained on horseback throughout the battle.At first, Loyalist troops felt confident in their strong defensive position, and Fergusons confident commands issued by his famous whistle. At first, Loyalists swept the Patriots off the plateau of Kings Mountain with a bayonet charge.However, the Loyalist musket volleys proved ineffective as they fired over the heads of attacking Patriots. The battle turned against the Loyalists once it became clear the Patriots had surrounded the mountain and would not retreat.The Battle of Kings Mountain: Fergusons DefeatEngraving of the Death of British Major Patrick Ferguson at Kings Mountain by Alonzo Chappel, 1863. Source: Anne S. K. Brown Collection at Brown University / Wikimedia CommonsFerguson unleashed a deadly counterattack as the Patriots closed in on his position. But Patriot sharpshooters soon killed Ferguson with at least six shots finding their target. Soon, Loyalist forces began to surrender.In little over two hours of fighting, at least 246 Loyalists were killed against just 29 Patriots.Unlike most Revolutionary War battles, Kings Mountain was notable for the prevalence of rifles instead of muskets among the combatants. Only Fergusons troops mostly carried muskets on the battlefield that day.The primary difference between a rifle and a musket is speed versus accuracy and compatibility with the bayonet. Although an eighteenth-century rifle like those carried by many Patriot militiamen at Kings Mountain featured slow loading times, it was accurate. For instance, a rifle could hit a target at 200 or 300 yards.However, the rifle could only be fired about once per minute. Importantly, it could not accept a bayonet. On the other hand, a smooth-bore musket could be easily and quickly loaded. While inaccurate, a musket could be fired at least three times per minute by an experienced soldier and accept a bayonet.Although Ferguson was a proponent of utilizing rifles, he commanded his troops at Kings Mountain using the conventional eighteenth-century method of linear warfare with muskets and bayonets. Ferguson was ultimately killed by the firearms he had unsuccessfully lobbied senior British officials to fully embrace.Why Was the Battle of Kings Mountain Significant?Portrait of Major General Nathanael Greene by Charles Wilson Peale, 1783. Source: National Park Service / Wikimedia CommonsLeaders on both sides immediately recognized the magnitude of the Patriot victory at Kings Mountain. Patriots celebrated crushing Fergusons Loyalist threat. For example, Dameron points out that Thomas Jefferson called Kings Mountain The turn of the tide of success.On the other hand, British officials lamented the loss of a capable commander in Patrick Ferguson. The battles demoralizing effect on the South Carolina Loyalists was even more pressing. British forces never recovered the brief recruitment momentum Ferguson oversaw for the remainder of the war. Thus, Patriot voices increasingly had the upper hand in communities across the South.Fergusons defeat at Kings Mountain also influenced Cornwallis next moves. Cornwallis hesitated to push into North Carolina in the immediate aftermath of Fergusons defeat. The Patriots at Kings Mountain bought the Continental Army vital time to regroup after the defeats at Charleston and Camden. Under a capable commander in Nathanael Greene, the Continental Army would be better prepared to face Cornwallis in the South.The battles other significance involves the makeup of the opposing forces. Patrick Ferguson was the lone Briton on the battlefield at Kings Mountain. Every other combatant on either side was American. In fact, while some Loyalists wore newly issued British redcoat uniforms, most of the combatants on either side wore typical frontier civilian clothing. Dameron says Patriots put paper strips in the hats while Loyalists wore evergreen boughs to distinguish friends from enemies.AftermathPhotograph of the Grave of Patrick Ferguson, Kings Mountain National Military Park. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKings Mountain reflected the civil war within the American Revolution as much as any battle in the war for American independence. The battles aftermath was equally volatile and deadly for Patriots and Loyalists in the South Carolina backcountry. Like the battle, the violent aftermath highlights the civil war dynamic in the American Revolution.For example, Dameron notes that as the Patriots traveled with roughly 800 Loyalist prisoners, they learned of atrocities committed by other Loyalist commanders against their communities. In response, some Patriots attacked their prisoners, and other Loyalists were killed attempting to escape.The situation worsened when news arrived that several Patriots had been hanged at Fort Ninety-Six. In response, Dameron explains that Patriots held an ad hoc trial in North Carolina, charging dozens of Loyalist prisoners from Kings Mountain with crimes against the local communities. At least thirty were found guilty and sentenced to death. Nine Loyalist prisoners were hanged before news arrived that Tarleton was in pursuit.Moreover, Campbell received orders to deliver the prisoners to the Continental Armys southern department headquarters at Hillsboro, North Carolina. At that time, the Patriot force that had fought at Kings Mountain disbanded, with some bringing the Loyalist prisoners to Hillsboro and others returning home.Today, the battlefield is preserved as part of the Kings Mountain National Military Park.References and Further ReadingAtkinson, R. (2019). The British Are Coming: The War for America, Lexington to Princeton, 1775-1777. Holt.Dameron, J. D. (2003). Kings Mountain: The Defeat of the Loyalists, October 7, 1780. Da Capo Press.Dykeman, W. (1978). The Battle of Kings Mountain, 1780: With Fire and Sword. NPS.Edgar, W. (2001). Partisans and Redcoats: The Southern Conflict that Turned the Tide of the American Revolution. HarperCollins.Gordon, J.W. (2003). South Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History. USC Press.

The Warring States period that spanned from 475 BCE to 221 BCE was a time in China that was characterized by conflict, new ideas, and systems of governance which set the stage for the rise of Imperial China. Marked by a spike in warfare, the period is seen as key to the formation of China as a cohesive nation. The era emerged after the weakening of the Zhou Dynasty and was known for constant conflict. Just before the period, over a hundred states had been reduced through conquests until only seven major powers remained. States were increasingly involved in wars. Many of them relied on huge conscripted armies drawn from the peasantry who initially used simple weapons, though over time they made use of arms and armor due to iron technology advancements.Growth of the Qin StateMap of the Warring States Period. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAmidst the chaos, the state of Qin pioneered a new ruthlessly efficient model of statecraft. In 356 BCE, it launched reforms under the guidance of Minister Shang Yang which centralized power and set up the first direct tax systems. The changes were rooted in the philosophy of Legalism which prioritized the absolute power of the state, advocating for strict laws and merit-based rewards in areas such as warfare over noble birthright. In later years, Qin dynasty laws declared the old feudal system outdated since it had been supported by nobles and not the state. The systems were rolled out across its territories. The new model created an unparalleled military machine.The Qin States Military WarfareSwords and spearhead, Warring States Period (5th-3rd centuries BCE). Source: Wikimedia Commons (Shanghai Museum)Qins growing conflicts with its neighbors created dissent. However, by the 3rd century BCE, it is estimated that the Qin state could field armies numbering up to a million men for a single campaign due to its continuous territorial acquisition and annexation campaigns. The advantage allowed it to easily crush its rivals. At the height of its power, the Qin state sought constant expansion across China and richly rewarded its soldiers. It quickly became the most powerful state in the region leading to widespread massacres which claimed the lives of many captured soldiers, civilians and nobles. Because of its ruthless methods, its army was referred to as the Tiger and Wolf Troops in historical records due to its ferocity.When the Qin State Destroyed the Zhao StateIllustration of Bai Qi. Source: WikipediaA prime example of its brutality was the decimation of its greatest rival, the Zhao state. The state of Zhao had long been a focus of Qins attacks during the mid-200s BCE. In the 260 BCE Battle of Changping, the Qin state attacked the state of Zhao. Though just one of many wars, the battle was especially disastrous because of its scale, according to historical records. After being defeated in the fall of 260 BCE, the surrounded Zhao forces were killed under the orders of Bai Qi. Hundreds of thousands of captured Zhao soldiers were executed. Some were buried alive. Hence Qi built his harsh reputation.With one of its biggest rivals decimated, the path to unification was almost clear. At the time, Qin also considered the Chu state as a danger because of its huge territory. And so Chu was defeated in 223 BCE on King Ying Zhengs orders. The Qin army then moved north to take over the Yan state. While the state resisted, it eventually fell and was absorbed. Eventually, all the remaining Chinese-speaking neighboring states in the region were brought under one rule.Ying Zheng as the Emperor of the Qin DynastyPhotograph of the Terracotta Army, by Aaron Greenwood, 2018. Source: UnsplashIn 221 BCE, Ying Zheng who ruled over the state declared himself an emperor Qin Shi Huang meaning First Emperor of Qin. The Warring States period ended with the emergence of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. This was after the Qi state, the last independent state, was toppled. To break down old regional loyalties and forge a single imperial identity, he enacted sweeping reforms.In the following years, he made the writing script uniform to enable government administrators and officials to more effectively manage the complex empire, through a unified national writing script system. Called the small-seal script, it was characterized by a symmetrical structure that featured thin lines made with balanced movements. The development was accompanied by the standardization of currency and weight systems, among others.

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