In antebellum New York City, a rivalry between Shakespearean stage actors spiraled out of control. Supporters of the actors violently clashed in the streets in front of the Astor Place Opera House in May 1849, leading to nearly two dozen dead, 150 wounded, and 177 arrested. How do we make sense of this event? Did people really die in defense of an actors reputation? Lets explore the Astor Place Riot, which was less about artistic differences and more about class tensions.The Actors: Who Was William Macready?Portrait of William Charles Macready as Macbeth by Thomas Charles Wageman, n.d. Source: Artware Fine ArtWilliam Charles Macready was one of the most famous actors of his age. An Englishman, he grew famous across the pond as well, first touring American cities in 1826. He hadnt always wanted to be an actorhe considered the law firstbut grudgingly began performing with his fathers theater company and debuted as Romeo in 1810. As the years passed, he garnered more popularity and became well-known for his Shakespearean roles, including Hamlet, King Lear, Richard II, and Iago.It was Macready who helped restore the full text of King Lear to the stage. Beginning in 1681, when Nahum Tate created an adaptation of the play, the Fool had always been omitted and the characters given a happy ending, with both Lear and Cordelia living. Macready did not think he could be true to the character of Lear in this truncated, altered version, and he brought the full text back. The Theatrical Examiner enthused, We never saw any tragedy, in so far as we could judge, affect an audience more deeply than the manner of the whole management of this tragedy of Lear. It was indeed a triumph for the stage.Macready was known as a traditional actor. His delivery was measured, grand. The poet Robert Browning, with whom Macready corresponded, said Macready was one of the most admirable and indeed fascinating characters I have ever known: somewhat too sensitive for his own happiness, and much too impulsive for invariable consistency with his nobler moods.Rival: Who Was Edwin Forrest?Edwin Forrest by Currier & Ives, 1860. Source: Library of CongressAmerican Edwin Forrest was the workingmans actor. In his impassioned portrayals of frontiersmen and Native Americans, he elicited ardor and loyalty from lower-class theatergoers. He also played notable Shakespearean leads such as Macbeth, Hamlet, and King Lear.Forrest was born in Philadelphia in 1806 and began acting in the 1820s, attaining fame for his portrayal of Othello in New York City. He was a political figure, of sorts, and even delivered the keynote speech at the 1838 Democratic convention in place of the actual President of the United States, Martin Van Buren. In particular, Irish immigrants saw him as the embodiment of their working-class values.He disliked the British theater scene, considering it elitist and insular, and eschewed the mannered, intellectual style of English actors. Forrests biographer claimed no one carried the democratic fever to the stage with such fierce passion, and his supporters heralded his vital, burly Americanism. Though he loved Shakespeare, he thought it important to bring attention to American playwrights and their works, holding a yearly contest for original plays about Americans. One of the winners was Metamora; or, The Last of the Wampanoags, in which he played the lead role not long before the Astor Place Riot.Setting the Stage: The Astor Place Opera HouseA map of the Opera Houses location in 1954 (labeled here as the Mercantile Library, which took over the building). Held by the New York Public Library. Source: Gotham Center for New York City HistoryThe location of the Astor Opera House is one of the biggest reasons the riot turned as deadly as it did. The neighborhood was crossed by two thoroughfares, Broadway and the Bowery, that abutted and met at the Opera House. While both were populated with theaters, halls, taverns, and various other amusements, Broadway was seen as catering to the upper classes and the Bowery to the lower.The Opera House was built in 1847 and was clearly intended to bring in more decorous, elite audiences. It was imperious in its appearance, and the seats were comfortable and luxurious. There was a dress code, and the seats were arranged in a way that made opera-goers dress conspicuous. The New-York Tribune explained that opera must have an elegant environment if it is to succeed, and another cultural critic lauded it as one of the most attractive theatres ever erected.Unsurprisingly, there were also some criticisms of the opera house and its snootiness. Godeys Magazine and Ladys Book sniffed, The monopoly of the best seats by certain subscribers and stockholders of the Astor Place Opera House, has been the great objection and great drawback to that establishment. To the masses of the rest of the community, it has an appearance of exclusiveness and monopoly which will not be tolerated by them.A Rivalry Turns ViolentIncendiary handbill created by the American Committee, 1849. Source: Folger Shakespeare LibraryThroughout the late 1830s and 1840s, Macready and Forrest developed a rivalry that spread to, and was exacerbated by, their fervid supporters. When Forrest visited London in 1845 to play Macbeth, a cool reception led him to assume that Macready had besmirched his reputation, so Forrest hissed at Macready from the audience while the older actor was on stage playing Hamlet. They took their growing animosity to the press, which gleefully printed and reprinted their harangues.By 1848, Macready was preparing to retire and decided to embark on a farewell tour in the United States. Unfortunately, it seemed like all anyone wanted to talk about was his feud with Forrest, which was wearying to the actor.Macready kicked off his farewell tour at the Astor Place Opera House on October 4th, 1848. It went well, and he continued the tour in other American cities. Occasionally, he was met by taunting Forrest supporters, though, and he could not resist sniping back at Forrest, one time referring to him just as an actor and not calling him by name. The New York Herald said they resemble[d] two children.Macready decided his last engagement would be at the Opera House in New York, where he would play Macbeth. Forrest was not far away, in residence at the Broadway Theatre, also playing Macbeth. When Macready took the stage, he was met with a cavalcade of criticism, as people hissed, booed, and threw things onstage. At one point, someone threw a chair from the second tier, which landed in the orchestra, and then three more were thrown. Macready exited the stage, and the Tribune deemed the night a disgraceful row.Edwin Forrest as Metamora by James Bannister, late 19th or early 20th century. Source: Folger Shakespeare LibraryMacready decided not to return to the Opera House the next night, but Forrest went on as scheduled, playing the role Macready was supposed to have performed. Forrest then staged Metamora while the Opera House hosted The Merry Wives of Windsor without Macready. Elite New Yorkers signed a petition begging Macready to return and promised no trouble, so he agreed to return for Macbeth.The petition from the elites was picked up by the newspapers and was seen as a further affront to the Forrest supporters. The new mayor, Caleb S. Woodhull, planned to attend Macreadys final bow and requested a police presence. Unfortunately, the Chief of Police said his force was not large enough to ensure containment of a serious riot, so Woodhull then asked a regiment of the States militia to be stationed at Washington Square Park. The stageliterallywas set for a clash.Historian Fran Leadon provides some of the larger context: Two famous, aggrieved actors arguingso what? But it mattered very much that Forrest was American and Macready was British, at a moment when British-American relations were at a low pointSiding with Forrest became a populist badge, even if hatred of Macready and his supposedly pro-British, elitist fans had forged an unlikely (and temporary) alliance between Nativists and the Irish immigrants they despised. Everyone was on edge anyway, as the Macready-Forrest rivalry played out against a backdrop of social unrest that had begun the previous year with revolutions sweeping across Europe.Street Brawl: The Astor Place RiotGreat riot at the Astor Place Opera House, New York on Thursday evening May 10th 1849 by N. Currier. Source: Library of CongressForrests supporters bought tickets and distributed an inflammatory handbill throughout the city that deemed the Astor Opera House an English aristocratic space and urged Workingmen and Freemen to stand by your lawful rights! Many of them entered the theater, where they proceeded to heckle and boo Macready. Police stationed inside arrested some, and the apprehended attendees remained inside until the morning.Outside, though, the crowd, which grew to 10,000, began assaulting the building, and Major General Charles W. Sandford of the militia realized he did not have enough manpower to control them. The gas lamps were doused by rioters, the crowd surged, and the troops, who had been forced onto the sidewalk in front of the theater, were struck with stones and other projectiles. Sandford ordered his troops to use fixed bayonets, but the crowd tried to yank them away. Many onlookers were in the triangular space in front of the Opera House, and as soon as the troops began firing on the crowd, they began running in terror. (Macready, its noted, finished his performance and snuck out the back, blending into the crowd and departing before the carnage broke out.)One bystander who managed to escape explained to the press, I dont know how long I stood there, I was so frightenedI stood there until I heard another banging of muskets, and then I started and ran home as quick as I could; I should not have gone there, if I had known they were going to use lead; I went to see what was going on, like many others. Historian Fran Leadon writes that the real tragedy of the riot was that almost all of the people killed were bystanders and seven were under 21 years of age.Aftermath: Lessons Learned?Clinton Hall, built on the site of the Astor Place Opera House, Angelo Rizzuto, 1954. Source: Library of CongressAfter the riot dissipated, the extent of the violence was clear: 18 died in the riot while four additional victims died by the end of the week, and 150 were injured. There was a mass rally at City Hall the next day, but when people made their way up to Astor Place, the militia again threatened them with muskets, and they dispersed. The elites of the city went back to business as usual almost right away.The opera house was not destroyed, but the walls and doors were heavily battered, the windows broken. It received the nickname Massacre Opera House. The Academy of Music near Union Square soon replaced it as the elites preferred theater. The interior of Astor Place was broken down and sold off, and the buildings shell was sold in 1853 to the New York Mercantile Library for $140,000. They renamed it Clinton Hall, but it was torn down in 1890 in favor of a larger building, which currently stands on the site.The actors whose rivalry spurred this tragedy largely avoided any sort of blame for the event. Macready went home and Forrest continued to triumphantly take the stage.Historian Leo Hershkowitz concludes somewhat ruefully about the riot, For society at large, issues of political division, class antagonism, bigotry, police power, law and order, the prime issue of defining the rules and delineating the bounds of democratic freedom of expression in the face of terrorism, remained to be resolved perhaps at some future time.

Few French officers during the height of the French Revolutionary Wars in the mid-1790s were as famous, popular, and accomplished as Jean Victor Moreau. However, he would soon be eclipsed by a young general named Napoleon Bonaparte. Unlike some French revolutionary officers in the early 1790s, Moreau remained committed to the republican cause and became Napoleons friend and close associate. Nevertheless, Moreaus relationship with Napoleons opponents ultimately resulted in his arrest and exile from France. After several years of exile in the US, Moreau returned to Europe to fight against Napoleon.Jean Victor Moreau: A Revolutionary GeneralGeneral Jean Victor Moreau, by Franois Grard, c. 1797. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Chteau de VersaillesMoreau was born in the region of Brittany in February 1763. His father was a prominent lawyer who insisted that his son pursue the same profession. Young Jean Victor studied law at the University of Rennes. However, Moreau longed to pursue a military career.Fortunately for Moreau, the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 put his studies on hold and presented an opportunity to join the army. His firm republican attitudes and leadership abilities catapulted Moreau from a humble volunteer to a general by 1793.Just as a young Napoleon would do a few years later, Moreau was rapidly promoted in the ranks of revolutionary Frances army. Indeed, by 1795, Moreau became the commander of Frances Army of the Rhine and Moselle.As commander of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle, Moreau crossed the Rhine and fought the Austrians in Germany. According to historian Gregory Fremont-Barnes, Austria was revolutionary Frances most dangerous enemy. Indeed, Frances government, the Directory, focused their war aims in 1795-1796 on defeating Austria (2001, 9).As a result, Moreaus army was one of three French forces arrayed against Austria in the 1796 campaign. A young Napoleon received his first command as the head of the third and smallest of these French forces, the Army of Italy. As historian Gunther Rothenburg notes, although initially meant to be a sideshow, Napoleons Army of Italy won a series of legendary battles in 1796-1797 that dramatically changed the war against Austria (1999, 47).Brumaire: Napoleons Rise to PowerNapolon Bonaparte in the coup dtat of 18 Brumaire VIII (9 November 1799), by Franois Bouchot, 1840. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Chteau de VersaillesMoreau was transferred to command in Italy upon the renewal of hostilities with Austria in 1799. With Napoleon campaigning in Egypt, French forces in Italy were left to fight the Austrians and their Russian allies without the general who had won the brilliant campaign of 1796-1797.Led by the brilliant Russian commander, Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov, the Russian and Austrian forces scored multiple victories over Moreau and other French commanders in Italy and Switzerland. Historian Christopher Duffy notes that Suvorov praised Moreau as a worthy opponent. Suvorov remarked, To beat Moreauthat would be something worth doing (1999, 70).With little hope of victory after the loss of the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile and French reversals in Italy, Napoleon made a daring escape from Egypt to return to France in the fall of 1799. Napoleon and a group of conspirators orchestrated the Directorys collapse in the so-called Brumaire Coup in November 1799. At first, some conspirators wanted Moreau to lead the new government, but the general declined.Historian William Doyle notes that Brumaire dismantled the French revolutionary government and installed Napoleon as the countrys ruler. Indeed, Napoleon proclaimed to the French public that the Revolution had ended (2001, 98).Andrew Roberts notes that Moreau played a role in Brumaire by arresting some of the Directorys members (2014, 219-220).At this point, Moreau was wealthy and popular with the French public and Napoleon. He married a friend of Napoleons wife, Josephine, Eugnie Hulot (1781-1821). This also brought Moreau closer to Napoleons circle.Moreaus Finest Hour: The Battle of Hohenlinden, December 1800Battle of Hohenlinden, December 3, 1800, by Henri Frdric Schopin, 1836. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Chteau de Versailles, Galerie des BataillesNapoleon won a brilliant victory over an Austrian army in northern Italy at Marengo in June 1800. French forces recovered much of the territory in Italy lost to Austria during Suvorovs Austro-Russian invasion of 1799. However, Austria had not yet been knocked out of the war against France. Indeed, negotiations between Austrian and French diplomats collapsed by mid-November.As a result, Fremont-Barnes explains that French and Austrian forces prepared to face off along the Rhine in Germany. Moreau commanded French troops in the region, while Archduke John led the Austrian army. The two armies met amid the Hohenlinden forest, about 20 miles outside the Bavarian capital of Munich (2001, 92).Between December 2-3, 1800, Archduke John launched an attack on Moreaus center, commanded by future Napoleonic marshal Michel Ney. Meanwhile, French troops attacked and routed the Austrian left. As a result, Archduke John was forced to retreat at the cost of roughly 18,000 casualties.Although Archduke Charles assumed command of Austrian forces, Vienna had little enthusiasm to continue fighting. Before the years end, the Austrians agreed to an armistice and prepared for peace with France.Hohenlinden proved to be Moreaus most significant victory. Fremont-Barnes points out it was also the last major land battle of the French Revolutionary Wars (2001, 92). Andrew Roberts notes that Napoleon wrote to Moreau shortly after receiving news of the French victory. A proud Napoleon told Moreau the wretched Austrianswere not yet acquainted with you. I salute you affectionately (2014, 286).Jean Victor Moreau: Anti-Napoleonic Conspirator?The Arrest of Georges Cadoudal, artist unknown, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Gallica Digital LibraryWhile Napoleon applauded Moreaus victory, the hero of Hohenlinden would soon become a potential political rival.Now firmly in power as First Consul, Napoleon distanced himself from some of the Revolutions changes to French society. For example, Napoleon reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church in an arrangement with the Pope, the Concordat, in 1801.The Concordat was deeply unpopular within the French military. For instance, Andrew Roberts notes that Moreau disobeyed Napoleons order to attend the first mass since the French Revolution at Notre Dame. Instead, Roberts says Moreau stood on a terrace at the Tuileries Palace smoking a cigar (2014, 274). By this point, Moreau had reservations about Napoleons power and increasing conservatism.Moreaus accomplished career and popularity kept his name in circulation as a possible replacement for Napoleon. Indeed, several plots and conspiracies were directed against Napoleon as he assumed greater power, including the title of emperor in 1804.The most famous of these plots against Napoleon is known as the Cadoudal conspiracy. This plot is also remembered for the roles of French generals, including Moreau and Charles Pichegru. French royalists like Georges Cadoudal and Pichegru worked with British intelligence on a plot to kidnap Napoleon in 1803.In January 1804, British forces landed Pichegru and several conspirators in France. Pichegru met Moreau and attempted to enlist his support to topple Napoleon. Andrew Roberts points out that although Moreau did not actively support the plot, his failure to alert Napoleon and the authorities made him complicit (2014, 336).Exile in America: Moreau the CelebrityJean-Victor Moreau, drawing by Charles Balthazar Julien Fvret de Saint-Mmin, c. 1806-1811. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe main conspirators were arrested by February 1804. Moreau was also arrested that month and sent to the notorious Temple Prison in Paris.Moreau skillfully professed his innocence during his trial. Indeed, as Andrew Roberts notes, the evidence against Moreau was circumstantial and based on hearsay, as he did not write down anything compromising (2014, 346). While Moreau initially received a jail sentence, Napoleon altered the punishment to exile in the United States. Cadoudal and several other conspirators were executed in June 1804.The Duc DEnghien, a cousin of the ill-fated King Louis XVI, was also less fortunate than Moreau. Indeed, Napoleon controversially had the French royal abducted from his home in the neutral German state of Baden and imprisoned in France.DEnghiens only crime was to be a prominent member of Frances royal family who lived close enough to Paris to be plausibly involved with a plot against Napoleons life. Andrew Roberts points out that DEnghiens execution shocked the courts of Europe and angered many in France, who considered it an example of Napoleons abuse of power (2014, 338).Moreau traveled to New York and soon purchased a home in the Philadelphia area. He soon settled into life as a celebrity in the United States. Indeed, many pamphlets and books appeared touting the exploits of the famous republican military hero who helped save the French Revolution.Moreau Against Napoleon: The Campaign of 1813 in GermanyPortrait of Imperator Alexander I of Russia, by Stepan Shchukin, 1808. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Pavlovsk Palace, Saint Petersburg, RussiaNapoleons disastrous 1812 campaign in Russia galvanized Frances rivals to form a new coalition. Bankrolled by Britain, the Sixth Coalition included Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and several small German and Italian states.News of Napoleons defeat in Russia prompted Moreau to leave the United States and return to Europe. Tsar Alexander I invited Moreau to join his staff as an advisor in the Imperial Russian army. Although Moreau had been offered a position in the US army, he accepted Tsar Alexanders offer and joined the war against Napoleonic France.Despite Frances staggering losses in Russia, Napoleon quickly replenished his forces to meet the forces of the Sixth Coalition. Historian Digby Smith points out that the rapid reconstruction of the French army reflected Napoleons excellent organizational skills and that France could rely on considerable numbers of troops conscripted from across its satellite states in Europe (2010, 10).This reorganized French force would take the field against the Sixth Coalition during the summer and fall of 1813 in Germany.The Battle of Dresden, 1813Battle of Dresden colored lithograph, by Antoine Charles Horace Vernet (called Carle Vernet) and Jacques Franois Swebach, c. early 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistorian Peter Hofschroer points out that Dresden was Napoleons lone great victory of the 1813 campaign in Germany. Moreover, it was one of his final significant victories as a battlefield commander (1993, 44).The Allied army of the Sixth Coalition led by the Austrian general Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg fought Napoleons troops over two bloody days in late August 1813 at Dresden.During the battles second day on August 27, 1813, Tsar Alexander asked Moreaus advice as they surveyed the battlefield from Racknitz Heights. Moreau suggested a plan of attack, and Alexander ordered a courier to send orders to Russian commanders.However, historian J.P. Riley notes that Napoleon ordered French artillery to concentrate their fire on a group of riders on Racknitz Heights (2001, 140). The riders happened to include Tsar Alexander and Moreau. The first shot of French artillery struck Moreau in the legs. Alexanders surgeon quickly amputated Moreaus legs, but the wound proved fatal. Moreau died five days later at the age of 50. Riley points out that Moreaus mortal wounding sapped Tsar Alexanders will to continue the fight. As a result, he lobbied fellow Allied commanders to retreat (2001, 143).Despite heavy losses, the Allied army managed to retreat into Bohemia to fight another day. As Hofschroer explains, Dresden had been a significant victory but not a total victory for Napoleon (1993, 51). Napoleon would suffer one of his worst defeats in October 1813 at the Battle of Leipzig.Jean Victor Moreaus LegacyCommemorative Medal depicting Jean-Victor Moreau, by Franois Augustin Caunois, 1819. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Carnavalet, Histoire de Paris, ParisMoreau was buried in the Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg. However, his heart was later buried next to his wife in Bordeaux.While Moreau was mortally wounded fighting against France at the 1813 Battle of Dresden, he is remembered as an accomplished French general.Indeed, many historians regard his victory at Hohenlinden as one of the most important of revolutionary Frances triumphs during the French Revolutionary Wars.Despite his republican sympathies, Moreaus hostility to Napoleon and victories were enough to earn the posthumous rank of Marshal of France from King Louis XVIII.References and Further ReadingDoyle, W. (2001). The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.Duffy, C. (1999). Eagles Over the Alps: Suvorov in Italy and Switzerland. Emperors Press.Fremont-Barnes, G. (2001). The French Revolutionary Wars. Osprey.Hofschroer, P. (1993). Leipzig 1813: The Battle of the Nations. Osprey.Riley, J.P. (2001). Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting. Cass.Roberts, A. (2014). Napoleon the Great. Penguin.Rothenburg, G. (1999). The Napoleonic Wars. Cassell.Smith, D. (2010). Armies of 1812. Spellmount.

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