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The Mesoamerican worldview, cyclical and dualistic, understood the universe as a system in constant renewal. The cosmos was organized into 13 heavens and nine underworlds arranged along a central axis, with the earth in the middle. Mictlan was the place where those who died in any way not associated with war, water, or premature birth would go. For four years, the dead would descend through nine levels, facing difficulties that would purify them until finally, they would come to rest in the final level of Mictlan.First Level: The SeparationThe four horizontal regions of Tlaltcpac, Fejrvry-Mayer Codex, 15th century. Source: Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies (FAMSI)In some versions of the codices (pre-Hispanic records), Tlaltipac means upon the earth and must be understood as the outermost layer of the underworld. It is the first level of the journey toward Mictlan but is still within the world of the living, as it is the same physical space where life takes place. It symbolizes the moment when the soul leaves behind its body, marking the beginning of the separation between the material and spiritual worlds. In the Mesoamerican worldview, there was a belief that caves were entrances to the underworld.Second Level: The Dog in the RiverA dead person accompanied by a Xoloitzcuintli arrives at Mictlantecuhtli and both make an offering of paper to the god. Codex Laud, 16th century. Source: FAMSIThis level represented the border between the living and the dead. It was necessary to cross the river Apanohuaya with the help of a Xoloitzcuintle dog. These hairless dogs were considered sacred because it was believed that they could represent men in sacrifice and guide their spirits to the underworld. They were also linked to the god Xolotl, twin brother of Quetzalcoatl. While the latter, god of the morning star, of light, of the sky, of life, announces the rising of the star, Xolotl, the evening star, of darkness, the underworld, and death, takes care of transporting it in the afternoon and accompanying it on its daily journey through the realm of death, in the same way that the spirit of the Xoloitzcuintle dog transports that of men to Mictlan.It was common to sacrifice a dog and bury it with the deceased; it was believed that preferably it had to be reddish in color because when its color was very dark, it meant that it could no longer carry souls since it had submerged many times in the river that leads to Mictlan, but if it was a very light color, it meant that it still lacked the maturity to be able to carry souls.Third Level: Where the Mountains MeetRepresentation of Tepeyollotl, Codex Telleriano-Remensis, 16th century. Source: FAMSIIn this region, there were two enormous mountains that opened and closed, crashing into each other. Therefore, the dead had to find the precise moment to cross the mountains without being crushed. Possibly, the two mountains can be interpreted from Mesoamerican dichotomous thinking, in which one would represent life and the other, death. The action of them coming together may have been a symbol of the reflection that the dead person had to make about their new condition of death and accept it. Tepeyllotl, god of the mountains and echoes, lord of the jaguars, reigned over this level.Fourth Level: Obsidian MountainsObsidian projectile points from Cantona, Puebla created between 650 and 900 CE. Source: Mediateca INAHContinuing with the interpretation that the journey through the levels of the underworld served to decompose the human body, these obsidian mountains tore off the flesh, which would no longer be needed since it was only a vehicle animated by the three soul entities that dwelled in the body: the tonalli, housed in the head; the ihiyotl, in the liver; and the teyolia, in the heart. The teyolia was the essence that, once death occurred, after some time would manage to reach the end of the path.In this level resides Itztlacoliuhqui, god of obsidian, punishment, sacrifice, disasters, and frost. In the past, he had been the guardian of the sun during dawn; however, in an attack of rage, he assaulted the god Tonatiuh and shot an arrow that pierced his head, and he was punished and consequently became this dark and cold god.Obsidian, a volcanic glass formed from lava at temperatures above 600C, was perhaps the most important raw material of Mesoamerica due to its physical qualities; every fragment of the material was used to create domestic, medicinal, artisanal, military, and religious tools. Moreover, it had great symbolic value; itztli, as it was called, was formed when lightning struck the earth: it was the synthesis of the celestial and the terrestrial.Fifth Level: The Obsidian WindsMictlampa, the northern hemisphere. Codex Borgia, 13th-15th century. Source: FAMSIContinuing along the journey, the dead arrived at a frozen region with strong winds. These currents were essential for the travelers to throw away all their belongings, such as clothes, jewels, weapons, and personal remains. In the first part of this place, called Itzehecayan, the winds were so strong that they lifted the obsidian stones that cut the corpses. This place was also the residence of Mictlanpachcatl, the god of the cold northern winds, who brought winter from Mictlan to the earth.Sixth Level: Place Where It Fluttered Like FlagsHuman body form with calendar sign associations, Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3738, 16th century. Source: MexicoloreBeyond Itzehecayan and the home of Mictlanpachcatl began an extensive desert area of difficult movement, including eight wastelands where gravity did not exist. The dead were at the mercy of the winds, which, just when they were about to leave, would return them, carrying them from one side to another like flags, until they finally managed to get out of the path. This can be interpreted as a metaphor: the deceased, by being turned around, detach themselves from the values, customs, and experiences learned in life so that their animistic entity, the teyolia, would arrive at the Mictlan.Seventh Level: Place Where People Are Pierced By ArrowsTlahuizcalpantecuhtli, as the morning star or Venus, shoots an arrow at a mountain, which represents the entrance to the underworld, and at the sun. Cospi Codex, 15th-16th century. Source: MexicoloreHere there was an extensive path on the sides of which invisible hands sent sharp arrows to riddle the corpses of the dead who tried to cross it. The dead had to avoid the arrows so as not to be hurt, bleed out, and be unable to continue the journey. It was also the dwelling place of the god Temiminatecuhtli, the lord of the archers and guardian of the sixth level of Mictlan, the Temiminaloyan. He had hundreds of helpers who were in charge of collecting all the missed arrows and darts wasted in wars, to later use them in the underworld to shoot at the dead while they traveled through his domains.Eighth Level: Where the Hearts Of People Are ConsumedSkull with a turquoise mosaic representing Tezcatlipoca, the Smoking Mirror. Mixtec, 15th or 16th Century. Source: British MuseumThis was the last level before the body decomposed and separated from the teyolia soul entity, which would later be deposited in Mictlan. This was the dwelling place of an enormous jaguar that devoured hearts. It is important to note that the jaguar had great significance, as it was considered the lord of animals, in the same way that a ruler was for men, so it was highly associated with power and authority. Its strength, ferocity, and agility made it an emblem of royalty. Moreover, for its bravery and pride, it also served as a model and warrior ideal; the image of this animal appears represented in codices in contexts of combat and sacrifice.Ninth Level: Mictlans Final DestinationSculpture of Mictlantecuhtli, 1440-1469. Source: INAH, MexicoFinally, after four years of travel, the final dwelling place is reached, the place of eternal rest for the souls, the house of the gods Mictlantecuhtli and Mictlancihuatl, who represented the culmination of the vital process. This place was characterized by the fetid air, putrefaction, cold, and humidity, but these were also the symbolic characteristics of the transformation of the body and the separation of the soul. In this place, the body decomposes, and the teyolia, the vital essence, separates to return to the earth.For the Mexica, Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the place of the dead, was commonly represented as a skull with many teeth, retaining its eyeballs. He was also associated with animals like the bat, the spider, and the owl, as they were considered omens of death. However, no matter how eerie it may seem, he was not a feared figure; rather, he inspired respect.In El Zapotal, an ancient Totonac city that flourished during the Classic period (300-900 CE), a funerary complex was found where the sculpture of Mictlantecuhtli stands out. Source: INAHMictlan should not be understood as a moral punishment, similar to the Christian hell, where one goes to pay for sins in life. Rather, it should be understood as the culmination of a natural debt, where the human being who, during life, consumed the resources of the Earth, feeds that same Earth in death, reintegrating him into the vital cycle.

On June 19, 1867, Emperor Maximilian of Mexico was executed by a firing squad of Mexican Republican soldiers, thus ending the short-lived Second Mexican Empire. From the outset of his reign, Maximilian made several policy mistakes, with the result that the Second Mexican Empire never achieved sufficient domestic support to replace its dependence on French soldiers. When Napoleon III chose to withdraw French soldiers from Mexico, the government of Emperor Maximilian was swiftly overthrown by the more popular Republican forces led by Mexican President Benito Jurez.Mexico in Crisis: Life Before the Second Mexican EmpireGeneral Scotts entrance into Mexico by Adolphe Jean-Baptiste Bayot and Carl Nebel, 1851. Source: Wikimedia CommonsImmediately following independence from Spain, Mexico had briefly been an empire ruled by Agustn de Iturbide from 1822 to 1823. The First Mexican Empire collapsed due to the Emperors inability to maintain control of the army or to placate those who believed that Mexico should be a republic. Agustn I was ultimately executed in 1824 when he returned to Mexico from exile after being overthrown the previous year.In the decades following his execution, Mexico was beset by civil wars, coups, and economic stagnation. The country also suffered military defeat in the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War, both of which resulted in the loss of significant territory.In this atmosphere of crisis, and notwithstanding the violent end of Emperor Agustn I, some Mexican conservatives continued to believe that establishing a monarchy would bring stability to the country. Mexican conservatives sought to convince a European noble to serve as Mexicos monarch, believing this would win the support of the great powers of Europe against further annexations by the United States.Napoleon III and Maximilian: Creating the Second Mexican EmpireVisit of Emperor Maximilian and Empress Charlotte of Mexico to Napoleon III in 1864, by Joseph Smeeton and Joachim-Jean Cosson, 1864. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor decades the monarchist project failed to progress in Mexico. However, in 1861 the new liberal President, Benito Jurez, ordered a temporary moratorium on Mexicos debt payments to European countries to deal with a fiscal crisis.In response, Emperor Napoleon III of France, supported by Britain and Spain, invaded Mexico. Britain and Spain quickly negotiated payment plans with President Jurez and withdrew their forces. Napoleon III, on the other hand, saw an opportunity to establish a monarchy in Mexico that would serve as a bulwark against the United States as well as a quasi-colony for France.At the time, the United States was distracted by the American Civil War and could only protest against the French invasion of Mexico.Napoleon III sent more forces to Mexico and eventually captured Mexico City and a significant portion of central Mexico. President Jurez and his government were forced to flee the capital but continued to fight against the French in the north and south of Mexico. Jurez refused to leave Mexico or resign the presidency, and supporters, known as Republicans, rallied to his cause.Napoleon III, supported by many Mexican conservatives, now looked for a European noble he could install as Emperor of Mexico and settled on Maximilian Hapsburg, the brother of the Emperor of Austria-Hungary. Maximilian, who had no prospect of ruling in Europe and was genuinely excited by the idea of modernizing Mexico, accepted the throne in April 1864. The Second Mexican Empire had been created.Early Mistakes: The Second Empire Loses SupportMaximilian and Carlota greet a delegation of the Kickapoo Peoples, by Jean Adolphe Beauc, 1865. Source: Artes de Mxico en UtahEmperor Maximilian and his wife Charlotte arrived in Mexico in May 1864. Maximilian was a well-intentioned ruler, but it quickly became apparent that he lacked a sufficient understanding of Mexican politics and history.From the outset, Maximilian failed to recognize that a substantial part of Mexicos population would always view him as illegitimate. Despite his efforts to adopt Mexican culture, Maximilian could not overcome the fact that he was an Austrian imposed on Mexico by a French army. Throughout Maximilians reign, many Mexicans continued to view President Jurez as the countrys legitimate leader. Many Mexicans who had not favored Jurez prior to the French invasion now supported his ongoing resistance to European intervention in Mexican affairs.A full-length portrait of President of Mexico Benito Jurez, approximately 1860, Ministry of Finance and Public Credit of Mexico. Source: Government of MexicoMaximilian did have the support of many Mexican conservatives and the Catholic Church, at least initially. However, unknown to Mexicos conservatives, Maximilian had embraced the precepts of 19th-century liberalism and began introducing legislation that left his conservative supporters aghast. For example, Maximilian confirmed the subordination of the Catholic Church to the imperial government, proclaimed freedom of worship, and refused to restore church properties that had been confiscated during the Jurez administration. Maximilian also introduced many liberal reforms, such as protections for workers and Mexicos Indigenous peoples.In the face of the obvious liberalism of their new emperor, many Mexican conservatives began to question whether they wished to fight and die for the Second Mexican Empire. The Catholic Church, whose clergy held significant influence over the views of the population, also became distinctly cool to Maximilian and the Second Mexican Empire.Overall, within a few months of arriving in Mexico, Maximilian had alienated his conservative support base while failing to win over many liberals, who still viewed him as a foreign invader.The American Civil War and the Black Decree: The Second Mexican Empire FaltersMexican Expedition. The population of Guadalajara advancing to meet General Bazaines corps as it entered the city, depicts French forces in Mexico, by Godefroy Durand, 1864. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite Maximilians missteps, in the first year of his reign the Second Mexican Empire managed to gain control of over two-thirds of Mexican territory, including most of the major industrial centers. Imperial forces scored several major military victories, and, for a while, it seemed as if the Second Mexican Empire might prevail over the Republican forces of President Jurez.However, most of the Second Mexican Empires victories were achieved by French soldiers. While Maximilian attempted to create an independent Imperial Mexican Army, his efforts were undermined by a chronic lack of funds and a lack of enthusiasm for the imperial regime.The strategic situation shifted suddenly in April 1865 when the American Civil War ended with the surrender of the Confederacy. Up to this time, the United States had been focused on the Civil War and was unable to do more than protest Napoleon IIIs invasion of Mexico. The French intervention in Mexico was a clear violation of the Monroe Doctrine, by which the United States asserted that European powers were not permitted to interfere in the Americas.The Room in the McLean House, at Appomattox C.H., in which Gen. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant, by The Major & Knapp Eng. Mfg. & Lith. Co., 1867. Source: Library of CongressThe United States had continued to recognize President Jurez as the legitimate leader of Mexico, and now it was able to provide the beleaguered Republican forces with arms, ammunition, and other supplies, as well as volunteers. When President Jurezs government was able to secure a $30 million in private loans from the United States in 1865, it was indicative of the fact that American investors expected him to ultimately prevail against the Second Mexican Empire.The influx of American support for President Jurez led to a surge in Republican morale and recruitment. At this juncture, in October 1865, the Second Mexican Empire made a grave strategic mistake when it issued the so-called Black Decree. The Black Decree stated that imperial forces were to take no prisoners and could summarily execute any captured Republicans. Maximilian appeared to believe that the Black Decree would rapidly lead to the collapse of the Republican movement. In reality, the Black Decree enraged many Mexicans and only served to increase support for President Jurez and the Republicans fighting the Second Mexican Empire.Withdrawal of French Support: Empire on the BrinkNapoleon III, by Alexandre Cabanel, 1865. Source: The Walters Art MuseumFollowing the end of the American Civil War, Napoleon III was increasingly alarmed at the prospect of being drawn into a conflict with the United States over the Second Mexican Empire. At the same time, the rise of Prussia in Europe and the consequent risk of war made the continued deployment of a significant portion of Frances military in Mexico a risky proposition. Napoleon III was also frustrated by the spiraling costs of the war against President Jurez and the Republicans, who, by the end of 1865, still controlled significant territory in Mexico.It was clear to Napoleon III and his government that their experiment with creating a monarchy in Mexico had been a failure. In January 1866, Napoleon III decided to cut his losses and announced that the French military would be withdrawing from Mexico.Despite the increasingly hopeless situation, Maximilian decided to stay, believing it was his duty not to abandon his followers. Maximilian believed that he could still save the Second Mexican Empire and achieve victory over President Jurez. French soldiers were progressively withdrawn throughout 1866. Without French support, Maximilians soldiers proved to be no match for the more numerous and better-equipped Republicans.By the end of 1866, almost all French forces had been withdrawn, and the Republicans were closing in on Mexico City. The last French soldiers left Mexico in March 1867. That same month, Maximilian retreated with the remaining forces of the Second Mexican Empire to the city of Quertaro.The Execution of Maximilian: Collapse of the Second Mexican EmpireEntrance of the militiamen of the 6th Battalion National Guard of Tetela of Ocampo to the plaza of Quertaro, Mexico, depicting the end of the Siege of Quertao, May 15, 1867. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAt Quertaro, Maximilian and approximately 10,000 imperial soldiers were besieged by over 40,000 soldiers loyal to President Jurez. While the forces of the Second Mexican Empire initially fared quite well during the Siege of Quertao, their position was hopeless. Maximilian and his generals decided to attempt a breakout to reach the coast. However, before the breakout could be mounted, an officer who had defected to the Republicans arranged to open the gates to the Republican forces. Quertaro was stormed, and Emperor Maximilian and his senior generals were captured on May 15, 1867.The victorious Republicans decided to place Emperor Maximilian on trial and used the Black Decree as one of the main charges against him. Despite pleas for clemency from around the world, President Jurez was determined to make an example of Emperor Maximilian and deter any future European intervention in Mexicos affairs.Emperor Maximilian of Mexico before the Execution, by Jean-Paul Laurens, 1882. Source: Hermitage MuseumOn June 19, 1867, alongside two of his generals, Emperor Maximilian was executed by firing squad. The emperor had no heir, and thus, the Second Mexican Empire died with him.Emperor Maximilian had ruled over the Second Mexican Empire for just over three years, during which he had made a series of mistakes, including alienating his conservative supporters and issuing the Black Decree, that crippled his ability to win domestic support. Ultimately, the Second Mexican Empire swiftly collapsed once Napoleon III chose to withdraw French military support for the battle against the Republicans and President Jurez.