The Atlantic published this story yesterday about grade inflation at Harvard of all places. It opens with members of the faculty bursting into laughter when someone read out the average GPA of graduating

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What can the Galactic Habitable Zone (GHZ), which is a galaxys region where complex life is hypothesized to be able to evolve, teach scientists about finding the correct stars that could have habitable planets? This is what a recent study accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics hopes to address as an international team of researchers investigated a connection between the migration of stars, commonly called stellar migration, and what this could mean for finding habitable planets within our galaxy. This study has the potential to help scientists better understand the astrophysical parameters for finding habitable worlds beyond Earth and even life as we know it.

Known all over the world as the king with six wives, Henry VIII was the second Tudor monarch in England. His reign left indelible imprints on British history. Often portrayed in popular media as a mercurial, irascible figure who would turn on those around him in a flash, Henry VIII did have certain consistent aims throughout his reign. Although he was intent on projecting an image of absolute power, other important individualsministers, clerics, and Henrys wivesalso made their mark on the nations transforming political landscape.The Young King: Henry VIIIPortrait of Henry VIII, by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1540-1547. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Walker Art Gallery, LiverpoolThe fact that Henry VIII was named Henry Tudor, like his father, King Henry VII, might make you think that he was the firstborn son and heir, always intended to inherit the throne. But Henry had an older brother, Arthur, named after the legendary king of Britain who, like the Tudor family, hailed from Wales. When Arthur Tudor died in 1502, the ten-year-old Henry became heir apparent and succeeded to the throne in 1509 upon his fathers death.Henry VIII started off his reign determined to be everything his father had not been: not frugal but fun-loving, not a reclusive miser but a Renaissance man. Only 17 when he was crowned, Henry had a reputation for enjoying hunting and jousting, music and pageantry, and fine clothing. Reports spread across Europe that the new king was impressive to look at and not shy about displaying his wealth. At his coronation, Henry and his wife Catherine of Aragon, both bedecked in jewels, paraded through Westminster under a canopy of gold cloth.Henry VII, by anonymous, c. 1505-1509. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, LondonHenry VII had been a careful ruler, conscious of his position as the first Tudor king. The English throne had come to him on the battlefield at Bosworth during the final battle of the Wars of the Roses when he and his Lancastrian troops defeated the Yorkist king Richard III.Although the victory put an end to the fighting between the two houses, Henry VII was by no means secure on the throne, and there were multiple attempts to put forward pretenders. Perkin Warbeck, who impersonated Richard, the Duke of York and younger brother of King Edward V, one of the missing Princes in the Tower, got as far as having his claim officially recognized by supporters in Burgundy and Ireland. When he gained enough support to mount an invasion at Cornwall, Henry had him imprisoned and later hanged.By marrying Elizabeth of York and having four children (Arthur, Henry, Margaret, and Mary), Henry VII hoped to secure the future of the dynasty. By adopting the Tudor rosea combination of the oft-used white rose of the Yorkists and the slightly less frequently seen red rose of the House of Lancasterhe signaled to the nation that peace and unity had come at last.Foreign Policy: Henry VIIIs Friends and FoesRichard Empson, Henry VII, and Edmund Dudley, author unknown, date unknown; with Catherine of Aragon, by Lucas Horenbout, 1525. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHenry VIII inherited the throne far more smoothly than his father had done, and what was more, he came to an unprecedentedly wealthy throne thanks to his fathers economic policies. Through a combination of strategic treaty-wagering and tax-raising, Henry VII had made the English monarchy richer than it had ever been. This had not made him hugely popular. One of his sons first decisive acts as king, after gauging which way the public opinion was swaying, was to charge Henry VIIs notorious tax collectors, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, with treason and have them executed.Acceding to a relatively stable throne, in both dynastic and economic terms, left Henry free to pursue foreign policy exactly as he wished. Would he take after his father and prefer to focus on domestic prosperity, maintaining good relations with neighboring states via mutually beneficial marriages, or would he offer a display of strength by pursuing war?Although he initially followed his fathers lead in maintaining a friendship with Louis XII of France, Henry soon reverted to the longstanding wish of English monarchs to expand their kingdom across the Channel. In 1513, aided by an alliance with Spain via his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, England invaded France, besieging and capturing the towns of Throuanne and Tournai (now in Belgium).James IV, 1473 1513. King of Scots, by Thomas Trotter, 1796. Source: National Galleries Scotland, EdinburghAt the same time, another traditional rivalry flared up again. Although Henry VII had signed the Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Scotland in 1502, his sons invasion of France prompted the Scottish king, James IV, to honor the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France by declaring war on England. Other factors motivated the rivalry between England and Scotland. The border was under constant dispute (in contrast to the more decisive border between England and France provided by the Channel), and English kings had been declaring themselves rulers of Scotland for centuries.James IV may also have objected to the young, upstart Henry VIII joining the so-called Catholic League against France (assembled by Pope Julius II) since James himself had only a few years earlier been given the title of Defender of the Faith by the pope. Since Henry was away with his armies in France, Catherine organized the troops to be sent to Scotland, and the Battle of Flodden, a decisive victory for England at which James IV himself was killed, was fought on September 9, 1513.The Field of the Cloth of Gold, British school, 16th century. Source: Royal Collection Trust, UKWithin five years of ascending to the throne, Henry had fought major battles on two fronts and emptied the treasury. However, there were signs that he might pursue foreign policy through less bellicose means. Louis XII of France died in 1515, succeeded by Francis I, who was only a few years older than Henry. The two kings formed a friendship, starting with the peace terms negotiated by Henrys minister, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, in the Treaty of London in 1518.They then ostentatiously displayed their friendship in 1520 at an event known as the Field of the Cloth of Gold, where Henry, Francis, and their retinues met for a fortnight of entertainments. The ostensible aim might have been to prove their dedication to peace (although they indulged in a one-on-one wrestling match, which Henry lost). Still, as the name suggests, the Field of the Cloth of Gold was really about parading their wealth. Minor palaces were erected solely for the event and adorned with the finest stained glass. Henry brought along two monkeys gilded with gold leaf, and the fountains flowed freely with red wine.Although, for primarily economic reasons, Henry was not able to wage war constantly, and there were periods of peace with both France and Scotland, his aims to expand the reaches of Englands territories into both countries were some of the most consistent aims of his reign. Major campaigns in France and Scotland followed in the 1540s, the last decade of Henry VIIIs reign, leaving all three of his legitimate children (all of whom came to the throne in succession) to continue the wars in both countries.How Henry VIII Used His MinistersThomas Wolsey, artist unknown, late 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, LondonLike other rulers of his day, Henry VIII considered himself divinely chosen to be king, a role that not only meant he had absolute power but made his entire person, body and soul, sacrosanct. In contrast to the theory of Niccol Machiavellis The Prince (written c. 1513, published 1532), which advised on how to navigate courtly power dynamics with wisdom and cunning, Henry subscribed to the more absolute notion of the divine right of kings, which made the monarch answerable to no one but God. In theory, the monarch was also accountable to the pope, Gods representative on earthbut Henry would come to see himself as having a privileged position as Gods representative himself, which not even the pope could contravene.However, Henrys reign is notable for the critical role played by several of his ministers. Thomas Wolsey was royal chaplain to Henry VII and was already beginning to become involved in diplomacy when Henry VIII came to the throne. As almonerin charge of distributing alms to those in needin the Privy Council, Wolsey had Henrys ear and was constantly on hand to resolve administrative issues that were of little interest to the young king.In 1514, Wolsey became Archbishop of York, one of the highest clerical offices in the nation. His rise to fame was notorious. The nobles resented him for his humble birth (apparently, he was a butchers son) and his adeptness at managing court politics and bringing down his rivals. Gathering bishoprics like chess pieces, he amassed such power and influencenot to mention moneythat he was branded Alter Rex or other king.The Trial of Queen Catherine of Aragon, by Henry Nelson ONeil, 1846-1848. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSuch a position, especially alongside an absolutist ruler such as Henry, was, of course, unsustainable. Wolsey eventually fell foul of the king, taking charge of diplomatic matters in a way that hinted, perhaps, at an intention to usurp his master. The Great Matter of Henrys divorce from Catherine of Aragon, which Wolsey was unable to attain, was the final straw. Having retreated to his lands in Yorkshire, Wolsey was called back to London to face charges of treason but died of natural causes on the journey.One of Wolseys disciples, the lawyer and former merchant Thomas Cromwell, had taken notes on the cardinals rise and fall. Like Wolsey, Cromwell was adept at managing the king and court. He became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1533, followed by a series of ever more prominent governmental positions, including Principal Secretary in 1534, Lord Privy Seal in 1536, and Vicegerent of Spiritualsin recognition of his role in the countrys religious transformation, more on which belowalso in 1536. For a few years, Cromwell occupied a position comparable to the modern concept of the prime minister, sitting atop the most important councils and having (almost) the final say on executive decisions about the realm.Thomas Cromwell, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1532-33. Source: The Frick Collection, New YorkLike Wolsey, though, Cromwell could not sustain this position forever. Members of the old noble families resented him, too, for his humble birth and rapid rise through the ranks. When turbulent times in the Reformation coincided with Henrys disastrous marriage to Anne of Cleves (orchestrated by Cromwell), Henry was easily convinced that his minister had grown too powerful. Convicted without trial for treason, ostensibly for over-zealously promoting Protestant reforms, Cromwell was executed on July 28, 1540.Henrys relationship with his ministers was, in the long run, transformative, informing his daughter Elizabeth Is carefully judged reliance on ministers such as Robert Cecil and Francis Walsingham. Ultimately, though, the rise of apparently ordinary people like Wolsey and Cromwell suggestedto many reflecting on the question a century later, as the Parliamentarians challenged the Royaliststhat perhaps the monarch might be fallible and ministers more capable.Henry VIIIs WivesAnne Boleyn in the Tower, by Eduoard Cibot, 1835. Source: New Statesman/Bridgeman ImagesHenry VIII stands out in the history of the British monarchy for having had six wives. Of all the kings since the Norman conquest, a handful had married twice: not an uncommon occurrence considering the higher likelihood of women in the medieval period dying in, or shortly after, childbirth. This was the fate of one of Henrys wives, Jane Seymour.On the whole, though, we can hardly say that Henry married six times because of womens low life expectancythere were myriad other reasons. One was that amorousness was among the qualities befitting the Renaissance man Henry sought to embody. As a young man, he wrote love poetry and composed and performed songs to woo the women at court (although it is probably not true that he wrote Greensleeves for Anne Boleyn, he did write her several love letters).Henry is known to have had affairs during his 20-year marriage to Catherine of Aragon, including with Mary Boleyn. However, it was only when he fell for her sister Anne that he rejected the prospect of another mere affair and pursued an annulment with a view to remarrying. This was partly a result of his frustration that Catherines numerous pregnancies had resulted in just one living child, a daughter (although, given his subsequent difficulties conceiving with later wives, it is likely their fertility problems were also down to him), and partly a result of Anne Boleyns force of character. As much as Wolsey or Cromwelltwo of her most important adversariesAnne knew how to get through to Henry, and she had a significant influence on events at home and abroad, most notably through her support of the Reformation.Jane Seymour, by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1536-37. Source: Web Gallery of ArtNot until his sixth wife would Henry have another consort who made a considerable contribution to the running of the country. Having had Anne Boleyn executed on charges of adultery with five men (on evidence, it is possible that Cromwell, along with other rivals of Annes, helped to bring forward), Henry then married Annes lady-in-waiting, Jane Seymour. The longed-for son, the future Edward VI, was born just over a week before Jane died.Henrys fourth and fifth marriages, to Anne of Cleves and then Catherine Howard, sum up his mercurial character, wavering between a susceptibility to be dominated by advisors and a willful ignorance of those around him. Cromwell and other councilors had recommended Anne of Cleves to strengthen Englands relationship with the Protestant German states. However, when she arrived in the country, Henry was unimpressed with her appearance and had the marriage annulled within six months. The idea that Henry simply found her unattractive has recently been challenged with the suggestion that Annes unusual German fashions were at fault; at least, Henry immediately reverted to the more familiar English charms of Catherine Howard.Catherine Parr, by unknown English artist, c. 1545. Source: Web Gallery of ArtNeither Anne of Cleves nor Catherine Howard influenced Henrys reign beyond providing evidence that the aging, ailing king was increasingly volatile. Henry had suffered a life-threatening jousting injury in 1536, which left him with a brain injury and constant abscesses on his leg.After Catherine Howard, like her cousin Anne Boleyn, had been executed for adultery, it was a brave woman who agreed to become the kings sixth wife. Unlike his previous wives, Catherine Parr was older and wiser and had already been married twice before. A strong advocate of educationboth for women and illiterate worshipers who, before the Reformation, had prayed a Latin mass with little conception of what they were sayingCatherine oversaw the education of Henrys children, Mary, Elizabeth, and Edward.In 1544, Parr translated into English a Latin work by Bishop John Fisher. The work was published as Psalms or Prayers taken out of Holy Scriptures, and included a Prayer for the King, which remains in the Book of Common Prayer used by Anglicans today. Henrys stance on Protestantism in the 1540s, however, was by no means wholly positive, and Catherine was careful to present herself as moderate and unconcerned with the more extreme reforms taking place in Europe.Although Catherine Parr married the king when he was most unpredictable, she managed to weather his storms. She even talked him down after he issued an arrest warrant against her. She survived him by just over a year.Reformation and RiotsThe remains of Creake Abbey, photographer unknown, date unknown. Source: English HeritageThe most important way Henry VIII transformed England was by breaking with the Vatican and instituting the Church of England. It is still debated how much of this was motivated by his wish to divorce Catherine of Aragon (which the Pope would not grant), how much he shared the views and aims of European reformers such as Martin Luther, and how much he and his councilors attempted to limit the vast power and wealth of the clergy in England (particularly as landowners).Back in 1521, Henry had been given the title of Defender of the Faith by Pope Leo X for condemning Luthers Ninety-Five Theses as heretical. But by 1531, Henry had created for himself the title of Supreme Head of the Church of England, sharing Luthers critiques of the Papacy but viewing himself, as a divinely ordained ruler, as solely capable of taking charge of the religious well-being of his people. In 1534, the unprecedented Act of Supremacy declared that the monarch was the sole head of the church. By 1536, Henry had appointed administrators, led by Cromwell, to address various abuses in monasteries and convents across England, Wales, and Ireland.The dissolution of the monasteries, as it became known, was purportedly a program of reform, looking into the possibility that some religious orders were misusing funds, promoting fraudulent relics, and covering up vice. Given that monasteries and other religious institutions owned a quarter of the cultivated land in England, though, there was a clear impetus for Henry VIII to have them shut down and their assets transferred to the crown. Every abbey and priory in England was dissolved (around 800), vast amounts of gold and silver were seized, and the buildings themselves, in many cases, were dismantled or damaged.The remains of the church at Mount Grace Priory, North Yorkshire, photographer unknown, date unknown. Source: English HeritageMany of these monasteries and abbeys were in the north of England, where continued support for Catholicism combined with grievances against Henrys rule, particularly the detrimental effects of his warmongering. In 1536, thousands of insurgents banded together in what became known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. One of the most widespread revolts of the entire Tudor period, it resulted in over 200 peopleboth nobility and ordinary civiliansbeing executed.Objections to Henrys reforms continued, however, and the remainder of his reign was characterized by religious divides, both on a personal and political level. As suggested by his willingness to prosecute his own wife, Catherine Parr, and to have Cromwell executed, both for subscribing to Protestant beliefs, Henry aimed to sustain something very close to the Catholic faith in England, just a version operating independently of Rome. When he lay dying in January 1547, he saw his confessor and received communion in accordance with Catholic rites, although the priest in attendance was the Protestant Archbishop Thomas Cranmer.This mixture of old and new faiths at Henrys deathbed set the tone for his legacy. His three children would each take distinct approaches to the nations religious life, from the radical Protestantism of Edward VI to even more radical attempts to bring the country back to Catholicism by Mary I (nicknamed Bloody Mary). On the other hand, Elizabeth I pursued a middle way.Although Protestantism was nominally the only faith in England, many recusant Catholics continued to practice their faith. Staunchly Catholic Spain used Englands heresy as grounds for mounting several armadas in the late decades of the 16th century.Henry VIII & the Tudor DynastyWhitehall Mural, by Remigius van Leemput, copy after the original preparatory cartoon by Hans Holbein the Younger (1537), 1667. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Royal Collection Trust, UKDid Henry VIII, in the end, fulfill the hopes at the beginning of his reign that he would establish the Tudor dynasty and bring stability to the country at last? Certainly, there were tumultuous moments. All of the money Henry VII had managed to wring out of the nations landowners, Henry VIII spent on wars in Scotland and France, achieving some victories on the battlefield but little territorial expansion. The Reformation was a long and rocky road, and his six marriages made him notorious in all the wrong ways.But were it not for Henry VIII, the Tudors may well have remained a footnote to history or a minor dynasty with little staying power. As it is, they are probably the most famous family to have ruled Britain. Henrys desperation for a son, so important a factor during his life, becomes ironic in the context of his legacy, especially when we think about how significantly his daughters shaped British history.Perhaps Henry had some prevision of the lasting fascination of the Tudors when he commissioned Hans Holbein to create a mural for Whitehall Palace, giving a fictional depiction of himself, as an adult, with his parents, Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, and his wife, Jane Seymour. The choice of figures is a testament to his conviction that the Tudor dynasty was, at last, secure.

For tens (and possibly hundreds) of thousands of years, human beings (including Neanderthals) painted on the walls of caves. Surrounded by an aura of mystery, these sites are beyond value to our understanding of what it means to be human and the evolution of intelligence and imagination within our species.Where are the oldest sites, and what is contained within them?1. Neanderthal Cave Paintings in SpainDrawing of the cave paintings in La Pasiega. The horizontal and vertical lines are attributed to Neanderthals while the other images were added later. Drawing by Henri Breuil, published in La Pasiega a Puente-Viesgo (Santander) (Espagne), 1913. Source: El PasThree sites in Spain can be considered among the oldest discovered examples of prehistoric cave paintings. A 2018 study indicated that the oldest of the artworks contained within these caves all date to around 65,000 years ago, predating the arrival of Homo sapiens by around 20,000 years. This fairly recent discovery adds to the solid evidence that the Neanderthals were not the savage brutes they were once made out to be but intelligent humans capable of abstract thought on a level that is comparable to modern Homo sapiens.The oldest of the artworks is in Maltravieso cave. It is a hand stencil dating back at least 66,700 years. Much of the painting is covered by calcite and is very hard to decipher. The oldest of a series of red dots on a curtain rock formation in Ardales cave is dated to at least 65,500 years ago, while the most striking piece of art, located in La Pasiega cave, is a series of lines that look like a ladder. The latter is dated to at least 64,800 years.However, there has been pushback from people in the scientific community. The discoveries based on uranium-thorium (U-Th) dating of calcite deposits have been challenged by many academics who claim there are errors in the dating method. Hoffman (2021) subsequently released a paper noting that methods of dating cave paintings are limited. However, as mentioned, there is evidence of Neanderthal symbolic behavior dating back to at least 180,000 years ago. Thus, it remains highly possible that, even if the dates are incorrect, the Neanderthals were mentally capable of creating such art.2. The Oldest Rock Art, Blombos, South AfricaArtifacts from Blombos Cave, including the 73,000-year-old rock fragment representing the oldest rock art ever discovered. Source: Henning, Chris Henshilwood. CC-BY-2.5The oldest rock art ever discovered dates back to 73,000 years ago, and although it is not a painting, it is the earliest evidence of abstract art. The discovery consists of a fragment of rock upon which a cross-hatch design was carved and painted red with ocher. The fragment was found in Blombos Cave on the South African coastline, roughly 300km (186 miles) to the east of Cape Town.Blombos Cave is an important site because it contains much evidence of Middle Stone Age life, which dates to between 100,000 and 70,000 years ago. Engraved ocher, engraved bone, refined stone and bone tools, and beads made from marine shells have been found at the site, revealing valuable insights into the prehistoric people who lived there for thousands of years.Blombos Museum of Archaeology. Source: museumexplorerResearch on the site is ongoing, and it is possible that evidence of even earlier habitation may be found. The site is located on a private nature reserve and is not open to the public. However, there is a small archaeological museum in nearby Stilbaai which exhibits the sites findings.3. Cave Paintings on Sulawesi Island, IndonesiaThe painting of a Celebes warty pig (to the left of the image) is the oldest known depiction of an animal, photograph by Basran Burhan, 2017. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe caves of the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia are home to many examples of prehistoric art. Among them is a life-size rendering of a Celebes warty pig, which was discovered in Leang Tedongnge cave and has since been dated to 45,500 years ago. This makes it the oldest depiction of an animal ever found and the oldest example of figurative art.The island of Sulawesi is also home to the oldest depiction of a hunting scene. On a wall in Leang Bulu Sipong cave, there is a painting of several small humanoid figures connected to an anoa (dwarf buffalo) via spears or ropes. Findings published in 2021 indicate the art to be at least 43,900 years old. Previously, the same team of researchers dated a painting of a banteng bull to 40,000 years ago in the Lubang Jeriji Saleh limestone cave complex. In the same cave complex are outlines of hands and fingers. Analysis of the cave wall suggests that the oldest of the finger stencils may be 52,000 years old.In Leang Timpuseng cave, there are various artworks, one of which is a hand stencil that was dated to be at least 39,900 years old, putting it in the same timeframe as paintings made by Homo sapiens in Europe. The cave also contains a 35,400-year-old painting of a female babirusa (deer-pig).4. Cueva del Castillo, SpainImages from the De Los Manos Panel in Cueva del Castillo, 2010. Source: Gabinete de Prensa del Gobierno de Cantabria / Wikimedia CommonsOne of the most famous sites for prehistoric art is the Cueva del Castillo, or Cave of the Castle, in Cantabria, northern Spain. Within the cave is a painting of a large red stippled disk. A 2012 study determined through the uranium-thorium method that the painting was over 40,800 years old and, as such, was claimed as the oldest painting ever discovered. However, subsequent discoveries in other parts of the world, including Europe, have proven to be older.El Castillo also contains pictures of bison, horses, and deer, as well as hand stencils. The dating on the stippled disc has caused significant debate in that it predates accepted models of Homo sapiens migration into the area, giving rise to the fact that it may have been created by Neanderthals.El Castillo is a popular destination for Palaeoarchaeologists. Along with other caves in the Cuevas de Monte Castillo complex, it is open to the public with guided tours on offer.5. Chauvet, FranceHorses, bison, and rhinoceroses in Pont dArc, which contains copies of the images in Chauvet, photograph by Claude Valette, 2016. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated in southeastern France, Chauvet-Pont-dArc Cave is one of the most important sites for palaeoarchaeological study. It is famous for its exceptionally beautiful and accurate depictions of wildlife. The cave, discovered in 1994, contains a treasure trove of prehistoric remains, including the footprints of a child, which were made around 26,000 years ago.The cave was used during two distinct periods in prehistory. Most of the artwork dates back to the Aurignacian era, and it dates back to 32,000 to 30,000 years ago. The childs footprints are from the later Gravettian era, 27,000 to 25,000 years ago. More recent research has pushed the habitation date further back. In 2016, a study claimed the two occupation dates ranged from 37,000 to 33,500 years ago and 31,000 to 28,000 years ago. Research in 2020 involving the IntCal20 radiocarbon calibration curve dating method indicated the oldest painting in the cave was created 36,500 years ago.Since its discovery, the cave has been closed to the public in an effort to preserve the artifacts contained within.6. Shulgan-Tash Cave, RussiaRock paintings in Shulgan-Tash cave, photograph by SaganZ, 2014. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated in the Burzyansky District of Bashkortostan, Russia, on the western slopes of the Ural Mountains, is the Shulgan-Tash Cave, where evidence of human occupation spanning tens of thousands of years has been documented. It is the northernmost site for prehistoric paintings discovered so far.The upper tier of the cave contains the oldest paintings, and uranium-thorium dating has shown that the oldest of the markings were made 36,400 years ago. The other paintings in the cave date from around 16,000 years ago.The art in the cave was discovered in 1959 by Alexander Ryumin, who was searching for bats. What he found instead shook the established beliefs in palaeoarchaeology. Cave drawings of prehistoric animals were thought to be characteristic of Western European prehistoric art, and it had been assumed that the phenomenon was localized to that area. As such, the discovery indicates an independent center of prehistoric art located in the Southern Urals that is not connected to the art in Western Europe.The paintings include depictions of horses, rhinoceroses, bison, and mammoths, as well as geometric shapes. Most of them are made with ocher, while a few were drawn with charcoal.Shulgan-Tash cave in Russia, photograph by Vanchy96, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom sites all over the world, every few years, new discoveries are made that push back the timeframe for the beginning of human art, impacting theories of migration and the development of human beings, including our evolutionary kin, the Neanderthals and the Denisovans. It is certain that more discoveries in the near future will increase our knowledge even further and expand our understanding of the lives of our prehistoric ancestors.

Women during the Medieval Era often struggled with finding ways to exert power. But through her political connections, land holdings, and iron will, the legendary Eleanor of Aquitaine became a highly influential figure within the English court, and beyond.Eleanor of Aquitaine: BackgroundEngraving of Eleanor of Aquitaine, Source: ThoughtCoEleanor of Aquitaines father was William X The Saint, the Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony. This meant she was born into one of the wealthiest dynasties in Europe. Her mother was named Aenor. She was born in 1124 in Bordeaux, Aquitaine. Eleanor had three siblings, although her mother died when she was young. She was a well-documented beauty, with Anglo-Norman poet Philippe de Thaun writing, God save Lady Eleanor, Queen, who is the arbiter of honor, wit and beauty.Her father died in 1137, and as the eldest daughter, she inherited the duchy at the young age of 13. It was unusual for a woman to claim family inheritance at the time, but it made her a wealthy bride for a future husband, and gave her power that many women did not have in the Medieval era.Eleanor of Aquitaine. Source: Mary Evans Picture LibraryEleanor was also incredibly well educated, even in comparison with many of her male peers. It therefore did not take long before she was engaged, and then wed to Louis VII, the future King of France in 1137. His father sent him with almost 500 knights and officials to guarantee the marriage.How Eleanors Marriages Enhanced Her Political InfluenceEleanor of Aquitaine and Louis VII on Crusade, From Les Chroniques de Saint-Denis, 14th century. Source: BritannicaEleanors marriage to Louis VII was not a successful one. The contract of their marriage stated that Aquitaine would remain hers until their oldest son became King of France. Although they had two daughters, she was unable to have a male heir with him. In the interest of securing his family line, the King sought a divorce from her and their marriage was annulled in 1152. The fact that she retained Aquitaine as a personal asset meant that, even though previously married, she was still a good match, and young enough to have more children.God Speed by Edmund Blair Leighton, 1900. Source: SothebysWeeks after the annulment went through, Eleanor married Henry Plantagenet, the Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou. He would later be King Henry II of England. Her marriage to him was more successful in terms of having heirs to the throne. Over the course of their marriage, they would have eight children. However, their marriage was also unhappy. The couple clashed over his infidelities and his feelings of threat over her position as a sovereign ruler on her own through Aquitaine. Her independence was fierce enough that it put a wedge in their marriage.When Eleanor Opposed Her HusbandDonor Portrait in Psalter of Eleanor of Aquitaine, ca. 1185. Source: The National Library of the Netherlands, The HagueThere is no better way to show nonsupport of your husbands rule than to actively encourage and participate in the rebellion of your sons against him. In 1173 she supported Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey in a revolt against Henry II after power clashes over her authority on Aquitaine, as well as brewing familial tensions. This was partly due to Henry II refusing to give their eldest surviving son Henry greater autonomy in the kingdom. Unfortunately for her, the rebellion failed. While not verified, it is possible that alliances were formed with France and Scotland to aid in the revolt. In true fairy-tale style, the king locked away his wife and she was imprisoned within the castle for about 15 years.After her husband died, she regained some leadership and political responsibilities through her son Richard I. While the incarceration set by her husband had meant to break her and put her in her place, instead, it helped build her resilience and her patience. The film The Lion in Winter, made in 1968 has Katharine Hepburn playing Eleanor during Christmas of 1183 during her imprisonment and illustrates the tense family relationships and politics at the time.How Eleanor Continued to Wield PowerEleanor of Aquitaine tomb effigy, photograph by Adam Bishop, 17 October 2011. Source: themedievalist.comAge did not slow down this powerhouse. In 1200, when she was almost 80, Eleanor rescued her granddaughter from Castile and brokered peace between the Plantagenets and Capetians through a marriage alliance. She also continued to aid her children politically.When she finally slowed down, Eleanor retired to Fontevraud Abbey. She died in 1204 either March 31, or April 1, depending on the sources. During her life she had ten children and 51 grandchildren, meaning that her family line would be ruling Europe for years. She is entombed in an abbey between Richard I and Henry II.King Louis VII Takes the Standard, by Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse, 1840.Source: BritishHeritage.comOver more than eight decades, Eleanor demonstrated how intelligence, inheritance, bold alliances, and resilience could enable a medieval woman to push back the boundaries that existed in that time period for a woman. She inherited enormous wealth, married powerful men, acted as an administrator, and even rebelled against her husband when needed. Eleanor was not just a queen consort, but an enduring icon.

It is often assumed that the Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Latin America subjugated all but a few remote Indigenous tribes, and that European culture (and to a lesser extent African culture imported with slaves) almost completely displaced native practices. However, many Indigenous Americans successfully employed creative strategies to preserve their unique cultures, sometimes hidden within the new European culture. This article explores four ways in which Indigenous cultures resisted colonialism in Latin America.1. They Fought Back with ForceCapture of Tenochtitln by Corts, unknown artist, c. later 17th century. Source: Library of CongressAlthough most Indigenous peoples of Latin America eventually succumbed to European military might, they did not go down without a fight. While European colonizers quickly established footholds in the Caribbean and other territories where local Indigenous communities lacked the military means to fight back, they encountered much stiffer resistance as they penetrated the mainland of Mesoamerica and South America.Moreover, the Spanish did not conquer the two great Indigenous empires of Latin America with military might alone. They were assisted by Indigenous allies and convenient happenstance. For example, it was only with help from the Indigenous enemies of the Aztec Empire that the conquistador Hernn Corts was able to conquer Mexico in 1521. Even then, it was only after months of brutal combat culminating in the siege of Tenochtitlan.Pizarro Seizing the Inca of Peru, by John Everett Millais, 1846. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum, LondonFurther south, in the early 1530s, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro encountered a weakened Inca Empire embroiled in civil war. Coupled with the rampant spread of European diseases and the deceitful capture and execution of the Inca leader Atahualpa, Pizarro conquered Peru within a few short years.However, in both cases, conquering the Aztecs and the Inca did not put an end to Indigenous military resistance. In Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere in colonial Latin America, Indigenous guerrilla warfare and periodic rebellions continued to threaten colonial rule for decades and even centuries following the initial conquest.El Rebelde Tupac Amaru, unknown artists, c. 1784-1806. Source: Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Buenos AiresOne of the most notable Indigenous rebellions of the colonial era was led by the Quechua chieftain Tpac Amaru II. This rebellion occurred following the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms in the 18th century, which sought to centralize the Spanish military and administrative system throughout the empire, reducing Indigenous autonomy. In response, Indigenous peoples in what are today Peru and Bolivia rose in rebellion, asserting a resurgent Inca identity. Although this rebellion was crushed by the Spanish authorities, it signaled that even after more than two centuries of colonialism, armed resistance was still a viable strategy of Indigenous cultural survival.Armed Indigenous resistance to colonialism did not end with the wars for Latin American independence from Spain and Portugal in the 19th century. Resistance continued throughout the 20th and even into the 21st century. Today, groups like the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) of Mexico demonstrate that some Indigenous peoples continue to use military means to preserve their autonomy.2. They Fled from the European AdvancePhotograph of Lacandons, by Teobert Maler, 1901. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhere armed conflict proved unfeasible, some Indigenous communities opted to flee from the European advance. These communities migrated away from centers of colonial power in a bid to preserve their autonomy.Some of the societies that later explorers and colonists would describe as remote or isolated, such as Amazonian tribes, were the result of mass exodus during the colonial era. Some were the survivors of European conquest and disease seeking to reestablish their communities far from the colonizing foreigners. Others, hearing about the Europeans in advance of their arrival, moved deeper into the hinterlands to avoid encountering them directly. This ensured that some Indigenous cultures were able to thrive for decades or even centuries longer than they otherwise would have.Photograph of members of an uncontacted tribe in the Brazilian state of Acre, by Gleilson Miranda, 2012. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the Indigenous communities that successfully preserved their cultural identity by moving away from colonized areas was the Lacandon Maya, offshoots of the ancient Maya civilization whose cities and temples still dot the landscape of Mesoamerica. They inhabit the Lacandon Jungle of the Mexican state of Chiapas, a region that remains remote and sparsely populated. In the colonial era, the Lacandon Maya escaped the worst excesses of Spanish rule by remaining in small farming communities far from both the Spanish and other Maya living under the colonial system.Only since the mid-20th century have the Lacandon Maya come into greater contact with the outside world, although they still retain a distinct culture thanks to their centuries of relative isolation and autonomy. The Lacandon are an outlier today, but historically, many other Indigenous communities benefited from the same strategy. A few dozen tribes, mostly in the furthest reach of the Amazon, remain in voluntary isolation.3. They Adopted Catholicism but Practiced Indigenous Religions in SecretPhotograph of the Kamnt people of Colombia carrying a portrait of the Virgin of Las Lajas, a Catholic figure, while celebrating a precolonial festival, 2023. Source: Rowan Glass.One of the major objectives of European colonialism in Latin America was to spread Catholicism, typically by forced conversion. Every major conquistador expedition took at least one priest with it, whose job it was both to serve the troops and to proselytize to the Indigenous people. Likewise, one of the first steps the Europeans took when conquering a new territory was to build churches, often on Indigenous sacred sites, and to quickly establish a local presence of Catholic clergymen. This ensured that the spread of Christianity went hand-in-hand with European political domination. Whats more, the Spanish Inquisition was perhaps even more vicious in attacking heresy and dissent in Latin America than in Spain itself.Predictably, these tactics resulted in the rapid spread of Catholicism among the Indigenous peoples of colonial Latin America. However, the types of Catholicism that developed in Indigenous areas were often markedly distinct from the mainstream Catholicism promoted by the European authorities. Instead, Indigenous cultures developed syncretic forms of Catholicism that allowed them to preserve elements of their pre-colonial religious beliefs.Our Lady of Guadalupe, a popular (and Church-sanctioned) folk saint in Mexico. Source: Carmel Catholic High SchoolOne of the most emblematic symbols of Latin American religious syncretism is the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico. Although a Catholic figure representing an apparition of the Virgin Mary, the Virgin of Guadalupe is also a distinctly Mexican figure that incorporates elements of Indigenous religious symbology. For instance, the Virgin of Guadalupe is depicted wearing a blue-green mantle, a color associated with the Mesoamerican deities Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl. The sunrays emanating from behind her are associated with the spines of the maguey plant, from which Mesoamericans produced the sacred drink pulque long before the Spaniards came. Furthermore, the Virgin of Guadalupe first appeared to an Indigenous man, Juan Diego, who was later named a saint by the Catholic Church.Some depictions of the Virgin of Guadalupe include other symbols associated with Indigenous Mesoamerican spirituality, making it unclear where Indigenous religion ends and Catholicism begins. The merging of Catholic and Indigenous symbols in this figure is evidence of the ability of Indigenous traditions and beliefs to powerfully retain their meanings under a Catholic veneer.In other cases, Catholicism was only given lip service by Indigenous people who secretly practiced their ancestral religions. Some people in remote regions of the Andes and the Amazon still practice the old ways.4. They Learned Spanish and Portuguese but Continued to Speak Their Own LanguagesThe author on his way to Lima, Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, c. 1615. Source: Royal Library, Copenhagen, Denmark.While Spanish and Portuguese quickly became the official languages of colonial Latin America, many Indigenous people continued to speak their own languages. Learning the languages of the colonizers was a means to gain access to and prestige within the colonial system. This was important for Indigenous peoples when interacting with Europeans and mestizos (mixed race). Local elites learned Spanish and Portuguese, while continuing to speak their own languages.Moreover, millions of Indigenous people never learned the colonial languages. For most, it was not necessary since Indigenous communities under European rule were highly restricted in terms of freedom of movement, both in and out. This meant that for many, encounters with Europeans and mestizos were rare.Photograph of detail from the Codex Borbonicus. Source: Natural History Museum, ParisFor several centuries of the colonial era, European languages were not even the most widely spoken languages in much of Latin America. Instead, Indigenous languages such as Quechua (spoken in the Andes), Nahuatl (spoken in Mexico), Maya dialects (in Central America), and Tupi-Guaran (Brazil and Paraguay) served as regional lingua francas. Because it was not always possible or effective to preach in Spanish or Portuguese, colonial missionaries and administrators often found it necessary to learn Indigenous languages themselves. Quechua and Nahuatl, therefore, became missionary languages employed by Europeans to aid in their proselytizing. This had the effect, however, of also strengthening Indigenous identities by preserving the use of their languages.Some indigenous languages continue to be spoken widely. In Peru, for example, it is estimated that a quarter of the population today speaks Quechua, while in Mexico, there are over one million Nahuatl speakers. These contemporary numbers indicate the historic success of this final strategy of Indigenous cultural survival.Indigenous Resurgence and Ongoing ThreatsPhotograph of an Amazonian Shaman, 2020. Source: Amaznia LatitudeIn recent decades, the Indigenous people of Latin America have been rising up again against oppression and subjugation. They are retaking ownership of their identity and transforming it into a symbol of empowerment, promoting their language and music and gaining a stronger voice in politics. This is reflected in the election of Evo Morales as the first indigenous president in Latin America in 140 years (2006-2019).Nevertheless, Indigenous culture is still under extreme threat due to forced displacements caused by deforestation, construction, and mining activities. In addition, since their culture is often deeply connected to the land for subsistence and livelihoods, they are disproportionately impacted by climate change. Plus, Indigenous cultures are not immune to the cultural assimilation that accompanies globalization. This, combined with continued challenges such as poverty, lack of access to healthcare and education, and poor infrastructure, means that the fight to preserve Indigenous Latin American cultures is ongoing.