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Are Space-Made Medicines The Future? Find Out More In Issue 38 Of CURIOUS – Out NowAre Space-Made Medicines The Future? Find Out More In Issue 38 Of CURIOUS – Out NowDo animals have a sense of humor? What do other worlds smell like? All this and more exclusively in the latest issue of our e-magazine.Creative Team Guest AuthorThis issue's cover story: Are space-made medicines the future?Image...

Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire during the 4th century CE. The empire fell in the next century as barbarian hordes, such as the Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Huns, Franks, and Alemanni, invaded and conquered parts of their territory. Rome, which was still a flourishing city in 400 CE, lay in tatters a hundred years later in the sixth century and saw the start of the Middle Ages, also called the Dark Ages. Yet, the spread of Christianity continued even in that period, despite serious challenges.The State of EuropeThe Baptism of Clovis by Master of Saint Giles (1500). Source: National Gallery of ArtEurope was in a state of upheaval as the Middle Ages commenced. Invasions by Barbarian hordes ushered in the fall of the Roman Empire, plagues and pandemics vanquished the population, and the emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire did not do enough to support and assist the people of the fallen Western Empire in their daily struggles. The barbarian hordes also brought paganism into direct confrontation with Christianity.Methods of Missions and EvangelismCharlemagne and the Pope, by Antoine Vrard, 1493. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNumerous factors contributed to the spread of Christianity during the Middle Ages. These were not always aspects of life we would consider as significant from our perspective, though they had a major impact during the Dark Ages.Political Alliances and Royal ConversionsPolitical leaders during the Middle Ages often adopted Christianity for political and cultural reasons. Some would also force Christianity on those within their realm, resulting in mass conversions albeit in name and not necessarily in belief. Among them are King Clovis I (converted) of the Franks and Charlemagne (converted others). These rulers would construct monasteries and churches in their realms to show their allegiance to the Church.At the height of papal power, the Roman See was a political powerhouse as much as it was a church. The Pope was instrumental in installing many-a-king, and the Holy Roman Empire was nothing other than an attempt to revive the Western Roman Empire within a Christian framework. The lines between Church and State blurred for the most part and resulted in religious persecution of those who opposed the teachings or will of the Church. Politicians and royalty often bowed to the powers in Rome and enforced Christianity on their people.MonasteriesTatev Monastery, Armenia, by Narek Hakobyan. Source: UnsplashMunks and Nuns in monasteries preserved and copied religious texts, and these institutions often became centers of learning from which the Christian faith spread. In some instances, monasteries were the only option the general population had in order to become literate. The texts used to teach pupils literacy were those that spread the Christian faith.Orders like the Benedictines and later the Cistercians established monasteries throughout Europe, spreading Christian teachings. Monasteries also cared for the sick or injured which garnered goodwill toward Christianity and provided opportunities for evangelism to take place.Education and ScholarshipThe Church established Cathedral schools and universities to become hubs of learning and scholarship. A significant part of the curricula of these educational centers focused on Christian doctrine. Institutions taught the works of notable Christian scholars and distributed them among students and the doctrine they espoused spread throughout Europe. The clergy and nobles trained at these institutions used their influence to disseminate their views among those within their spheres of influence.Integration of Local CulturesModern-day revelers celebrate Samhain. Source: National Heritage CenterRather than oppose every aspect of paganism, Christian missionaries would at times integrate local culture into Christian practice. Pagan holidays like Yule and Samhain were incorporated into Christian celebrations like Christmas and All Saints Day, while local heroes were adopted as saints to entice pagans to accept the Christianization process.CrusadesForced conversion was another questionable method of spreading the Christian faith into newly conquered areas. How well this method worked towards real conversion is doubtful. Holy wars saw Christian expansions in the Iberian Peninsula and Eastern Europe. At times, missionaries accompanied Crusaders to work with the local population to convert them of their own volition, but history also bears witness to forced conversions.Religious Art and ArchitectureSaint Augustine and the Saxons, by Joseph Martin Kronheim, 1868. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRichly decorated cathedrals and churches sprang up all over Europe. Some of them were decorated with Christian art like murals and statues depicting Biblical narratives. Though these works of art were not as elaborate as those produced during the Reformation, Renaissance, and Enlightenment periods they nonetheless served as tools to bring the Bible message to those who saw them and heard the associated stories. These works of art became tools of evangelism to the illiterate and literate alike.Economic and Social InfluenceDuring parts of the Middle Ages, the Church flourished, owning vast swaths of land and many mansions and opulently decorated structures. These riches appealed to many who sought to benefit by aligning themselves with the Church. The potential for gaining higher status in society often went together with being in the good graces of the local clergy and upper echelons of the Church-State bureaucracy.The Church also developed several social services that provided care to the general populace such as orphanages and hospitals. These institutions attracted the poor and frail, offering relief from their suffering. Many converted as they benefitted from the services these institutions offered.Significant Missions: Gregory the Great (c. 540-604)Detail of a miniature of Gregory the Great writing, inspired by the Holy Spirit represented as a dove, 12th century. Source: The British LibraryGregory the Great, who served as pope from 590 to 604, was the first to provide a significant sense of stability in Rome and drew people back to the Church as a beacon of hope amid the turmoil of a plague. He was a formidable servant-leader who not only cared for the people by providing for their daily needs for food and shelter, but he also used the contacts and influence he held outside of Rome to assist the populace of his city, and to increase the influence of Rome in other city-states across Europe.Saint Augustine (d. 604)Augustine preaching to King thelberht, 1864. Source: Royal Academy of Arts, LondonA particular passion of Gregorys was the evangelism of Britain. He was the impetus behind the missionary efforts by Augustine of Canterbury who he sent to the island to do evangelism. As a staunch supporter of monasticism, which he practiced and expanded himself before becoming pope himself, Gregory encouraged the lifestyle for the spiritual benefits it held. As centers of learning, monasteries contributed to the education of the people and were institutions of theological training and hubs for evangelism.Saint Boniface (c. 675-754)Boniface and the Donar Oak in Valhalla, the world of the gods of the Germanic peoples, by Emil Doepler, 1905. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHistory remembers Saint Boniface as a notable missionary to the Anglo-Saxons who resided in Germany and the Netherlands. He contributed to structuring the Church into bishoprics, monasteries, and dioceses in these parts of Europe and was instrumental in establishing Mainz as a diocese which later became an important ecclesiastical center.The German people, who were staunch pagans, were not easy to convert. The Hessian tribes who occupied territory in modern-day central Germany worshiped Donar, the god of thunder (the German equivalent of the Norse god Thor). The Donar Oak was a tree they believed was under his protection. It was a site where worshipers gathered, held rituals, and sacrificed. It served as a symbol of resistance against Christianity. Harming the tree would evoke divine retribution, they believed.Boniface traveled to Germany and promptly fell the oak while many pagan onlookers gathered to observe what would happen. No ill effect or sign of retribution befell Boniface. Many pagans converted to Christianity since they considered the event proof that their former pagan god was powerless in the face of the Christian message. Though some historians regard the record of the Donar Oak as a myth, it has served as an inspiration to many missionaries since. Saint Boniface has a legacy as a fearless missionary who did not shy away from evangelizing pagan people in foreign lands.Saints Cyril (827-869) and Methodius (815-885)Cyril and Methodius in Skopje, Macedonia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThese two brothers hailed from Thessalonica. They ministered to the Slavic people of Central and Eastern Europe, going as far as to develop the Glagolitic alphabet to provide the Slavic people with a translation of the Bible in their native tongue. They also encouraged natives to worship in their first language, rather than using Latin. The act made Christianity more accessible to the Slavic people. Their missionary work influenced cultural and religious development among Slavic nations and their missionary work is recognized in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions.Ansgar (801-865)Ansgar, by Siegfried Detlev Bendixen, 1826. Source: Verlag-hm.deAnsgars missionary endeavors to the Scandinavian peoples, particularly in Denmark and Sweden earned him the title Apostle of the North. Though he faced significant opposition when spreading Christianity in Denmark and establishing the first Christian Church in Sweden, his work paved the way for large-scale conversions in later centuries.These men are but a sample of the many who could be highlighted for their contribution to spreading Christianity during the Middle Ages.

World War I was the deadliest conflict of its time. In 1914, leaders on both sides expected the hostilities to be over in months. Instead, the war bogged down into trench warfare in Western Europe while fighting spread around the world. In a desperate race to win, the combatants introduced and improved upon weapons of destruction. These included tanks, trenches, machine guns, poison gas, dreadnoughts, and airplanes. Read on to discover more about the weapons in the First World War.World War 1 TanksGerman tank in action, by unknown, April 1, 1918. Source: Wikimedia CommonsInitially, the Western front in Europe became a mobile battlefield. Armies reacted with rapid movement. However, the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914 stopped the German advance into France and initiated years of static trench warfare.To break the impasse, Britain worked on a new mechanized weapon. Although the idea of an armored vehicle started before World War 1, the concept was discounted until trench warfare led to calls for military innovations to break the impasse.In 1915, the War Office initiated a Landships Committee. The Committee approved a design of an armored car with wheeled tracks, naming them tanks. In February 1916, 100 tanks were ordered from the British Ministry of Munitions.Engineers designed the new Mark I tank to cross barbed wire and push over wide trenches. Machine guns were placed in a position to fire into enemy lines. Some tanks also carried guns for heavier artillery-type firepower.Replica of a MK IV tank, Philip Capper, 2009. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFollowing intense testing and training in claustrophobic hot and loud conditions, tanks, manned by a crew of eight, were put into action in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. On September 15, the British attacked German trenches near the French village of Flers.Almost 50 tanks were dispersed among advancing infantry for the offensive. However, numerous units broke down before seeing action, while others stopped working or became stuck during the fighting. In the end, only nine tanks pushed through German lines. However, lack of coordination with the infantry left them isolated and forced to turn back.The use of tanks in this first battle was a limited success. Still, it worked well enough to convince British commanders to continue to use the armored weapon. The French and Germans also produced tanks for the battlefield to varying successes.World War 1 TrenchesUndated photo of a WWI trench, via the National WWI Museum & Memorial, Kansas CityPerhaps the lasting image of World War 1 is life in the trenches. While sometimes used in previous conflicts, such as the American Civil War, in 1914, trenches became a staple of warfare in Western Europe. Their main purpose was to protect soldiers and equipment from enemy fire.475 miles of trenches were dug on the Western Front. They were usually six to ten feet deep, with sandbags lining the top for protection.Between the Allied and German trenches was an area with barbed wire and booby traps, known as No Mans Land. This was where infantry had to cross to attack the enemy side. Sometimes, an enemy trench was captured, forcing the defeated side to retreat to a new one further back in the lines.Daily life for troops in the trenches was dull, dangerous, and dirty. Much of the time was spent waiting for an attack or an order to counterattack. Soldiers occupied their time by playing cards or writing letters home. Rest periods behind the lines broke long spans of time in the trenches.In addition to boredom, life was always dangerous. Artillery fire might land in a trench, causing it to collapse and crush the men within it. Peeking out above the sandbags could lead to instant death by a snipers bullet. Attacking enemy lines was a harrowing experience, running across the No Mans Land while dodging barbed wire, mines, and bullets.Daily trench life involved battling cold mud, rainwater, rats, lice, and disease. Millions of rats made life miserable for soldiers, spreading disease and contaminating food. Lice were everywhere, leading to constant discomfort as well as trench fever, a disease with bouts of pain and fever.Machine Guns in the First World WarA Vickers .303 inch Class C medium machine gun, the standard equipment of the British Army, 1910. Source: National Army Museum, LondonMachine guns were a staple weapon in the First World War. Indeed, it was their lethal effectiveness, along with artillery, that forced war into the trenches.Developed in the late 19th century, these destructive weapons were deployed early in the new conflict. The first machine guns used in World War 1 were heavy and difficult to move. They required four to six operators. The equipment frequently jammed or overheated.The German army adopted the technology earlier than the Allies. In August 1914, Germany had 12,000 machine guns while the British and French stock was in the hundreds.Machine guns were effective as both defensive and offensive weapons. Their use against infantry attacks proved highly effective, resulting in high losses. On the opening day of the Somme Offensive, attacking British forces suffered 60,000 casualties, the majority of them from heavy machine gun fire.Later in the war, machine guns were also used as offensive weapons. The weapons, for example, began to be attached to tanks and airplanes. In particular, the machine gun barrage became a popular tactic. Large numbers of guns were grouped together and fired repeatedly to form a steady barrage. The barrage supported offensives by firing over the heads of friendly troops into enemy positions.Throughout the war, the race was on to develop lighter, portable machine guns. By 1917, most nations were using lighter equipment, making military strategies more flexible and mobile.While deaths due to machine gun fire were enormous, German military historian Jack Sheldon attributes the rapid-fire gun to prolonging the war. According to Sheldon, the increased production and deployment of machine guns helped Germany substitute depleting manpower and continue the war well into 1918.Poison GasGas mask, Germany, 1915-1918, via the Wellcome CollectionSeveral gas chemicals were used in World War 1. The first time was by the French, who used tear gas against the Germans in August 1914. Although irritating, it was neither fatal nor considered effective.In January 1915, the Germans first used gas against the Russians on the Eastern Front, where the German artillery shot shells of a different type of tear gas toward the Russian lines. However, this also proved ineffective as the cold temperatures quickly dissipated the poison.The most effective use of poison gas occurred at the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915. There, the Germans released poisonous chlorine in canisters. Chlorine irritated the soldiers lungs, often proving fatal. The attack caused confusion and panic among Allied lines, with significant casualties.The British launched their own gas attack using chlorine against German lines in September 1915. However, winds caused the gas to blow back into the advancing British troops.Protections against chemical weapons evolved over time. The first defense was simple: using linen masks soaked in water. Only later were the more practical gas masks with respirators issued to front-line troops.July 1917 witnessed the release of the more lethal mustard gas. What made this gas so deadly was that it got into the lungs, as well as the skin. Mustard gas caused the skin to painfully redden and blister. Even the eyes were susceptible, which sometimes led to blindness.The use of poison gas by both sides caused massive physical and psychological devastation. With widespread use, soldiers adopted more effective protections. Like tanks and machine guns, poison gas caused more casualties but was not the knockout blow either side was hoping to achieve.DreadnoughtsHMS Neptune, 1909. Source: PicrylIn 1906, the new British battleship HMS Dreadnought first sailed. It was the largest military vessel of its time and launched the age of the dreadnoughts: giant battleships with size, speed, enormous firepower, and modern turbine engines.The turbine engines allowed speeds of up to 25 miles per hour. The increased number of guns on the ship overpowered other warships. The arms race of the dreadnought class battleship had begun.In the late 19th century, Britain was the dominant sea power. However, the German Empire was determined to achieve parity with the British, along with the United States, France, and Japan. While these other nations were far behind in the number of warships, the new battleships made most previous vessels obsolete, creating a rush to build them quickly.The biggest shipbuilding rivalry was between the British and Germans. By the beginning of the war in 1914, Great Britain had 29 dreadnoughts compared to 17 for Germany. Some historians say the dreadnought rivalry was a big factor leading to the First World War.The German submarine (U-boat) U-14, 1914. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DCIn the early years of the war, the two main naval rivals adopted separate strategies. The British employed a blockade of Germany using their naval dominance. The German plan put U-boats (submarines) into action to sink enemy shipping.Interestingly, only one major battle between dreadnoughts took place: the Battle of Jutland in May 1916. German U-boats and battleships attempted to lure the British fleet into battle, which countered by sailing towards the German line.Despite the German fleet inflicting more damage on British ships than they themselves suffered, the battle of the dreadnoughts ended in a stalemate. The British were unable to crush the German fleet, while the Germans realized they could not outgun the British navy.The age of the dreadnoughts was short. Aircraft carriers soon replaced them.AirplanesWorld War 1 airplane, by Alan Wilson, 2011. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter the Wright brothers first flight in 1903, air travel was still in its infancy when World War 1 began. Leaders on both sides first decided to use airplanes for scouting and reconnaissance rather than direct combat.Air tactics soon progressed to prevent enemy planes from spying on troop movements. Pilots were equipped with pistols and grenades. However, these light weapons proved ineffective in combat, and more lethal methods were developed.Heavier machine guns needed to be mounted on planes for increased firepower. The best way to support the extra weight was to add a second stacked wing, known as a biplane. The Germans were the first to develop the Fokker aircraft with a working machine gun that could synchronize firing through the propeller without damaging it.People viewed pilots as the noble knights of combat, replacing the cavalry on horseback that were mowed down by gunfire early in the war. Biplanes roamed freely in the air, free of the mud and rats of the trenches. Most pilots came from the officer classes, adding prestige to their roles. Some gained further fame as Air Aces, bringing down multiple enemy planes.Photo of a crashed German plane, by Richard Scholl, 1918. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerhaps the most famous fighter pilot of the Great War was Germanys ace Baron Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the Red Baron. The Red Baron flew a red-colored triplane, which was considered better for climbing and turning ability. He is credited with 80 confirmed planes shot down. The Red Baron perished in April 1918. Sources credited an Allied pilot with the kill, although the later consensus was the Red Baron died from anti-aircraft fire from the ground.The Allies had several of their own ace pilots with dozens of planes downed between them. They included Frances Rene Fonck, Canadian Billy Bishop, and Irish-born Mick Mannock.The weapons innovations of the First World War worked with devastating effects. What many expected to be a short war instead became a mechanized bloodbath. Many weapons evolved or changed after the war. Tanks and machine guns became more powerful. Generals avoided using poison gas and prolonged trench warfare. More sophisticated warships replaced dreadnoughts, and airplanes became bigger, faster, and more lethal.

Few individuals influenced modern philosophy and education in a way that is similar to Denis Diderots. During his life, he worked for the democratization of knowledge and made scientific and philosophical writings available to wider audiences. He is most recognized as co-editor of the Encyclopedia, but he was an author of numerous works and a philosopher who challenged the conventions of French society during the Enlightenment Era. This article will explore the life and legacy of the fascinating Denis Diderot.Denis Diderots Early LifePortrait of Denis Diderot, by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1767. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Louvre Museum, ParisDenis Diderot (1713-1784) was born into a good family in the beautiful country town of Langres in the Champagne district of northeast central France. He was from a rich background; his father was a master cutler, which indicated that the Diderots earned more than an average French family.His parents wanted him to pursue a theological education and to find his place within the Church. Diderot was pushed and supported by his family to get the best education, and he ultimately ended up in Paris studying literature, philosophy, arts, and science. This was the period when he began to ask questions about Christianity, the authoritarianism of the Catholic Church, and politics.Upon completing his education, Diderot continued to explore and read authors such as Cicero but also got to know more contemporary authors such as John Locke and Voltaire. His degree was in arts, but he also started studying law and philosophy. He began working as a tutor and a contributing writer in Paris. The academic and philosophical climate in the French capital in the 18th century was a perfect place for a young man like Diderot to immerse himself in Enlightenment ideals and start developing critical thinking.Portrait of Denis Diderot by Dmitry Levitzky, 1773. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse dArt et dHistoire de Genve, Geneva, SwitzerlandBy exposing himself to new political and philosophical ideas, Diderot was happy that he chose a life away from the Church. He started to see all the unfairness in society, from the governments exploitation to the hypocrisy of the Church. Diderot was deeply dissatisfied with the state of education and the involvement of the Church doctrines in the sciences. He was a true man of the Enlightenment Era; he stood for reason, logic, and progress, all of which were contrary to the political and religious establishment of his time.The Recognition and ImprisonmentThe title page of the Encyclopedia or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond DAlembert, 1751. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDiderot rose to fame in the 1740s and started his path to getting more recognition. His start was not easy, and he had some tough days, on the verge of poverty. His first jobs in the scholarly community were translations. His most famous one was the translation of A Dictionary of Medicine. He also started to write philosophical works emphasizing rational reasoning and critical thinking.Denis Diderots most famous philosophical works from this period were Pensees Philosophiques and La Promenade du Sceptique. In both works, Diderot was questioned and addressed topics such as religion, morality, and dogmatism. He was quite vocal and specific when it came to expressing his opinion and advocating secularism. This is when he began to be noticed and acknowledged by his colleagues.It is also important to note that Diderot was an author of scientific, literary, and philosophical works. He penned provocative essays on optics and acoustics and made a good point about how reason plays a key role in science and the humanities.Engraving of Denis Diderot, by H. Rousseau (graphic designer), E.Thomas (engraver). Source: Wikimedia CommonsBecause of his work and rapid recognition, Diderot soon came on the radar of the political and religious authorities in France. The piece that got him into trouble was the essay Letter on the Blind for the Use of Those Who See. In the eyes of authorities, this essay was blasphemous. The reason for that was because it questioned the idea and the existence of God, and also promoted materialistic philosophy. To say that the essay was not well received is an understatement.The Church saw it as a direct attack on its doctrines, and the French government saw it as a defiance of the existing order in society. Diderot was eventually arrested in 1749 and spent three months in prison. Ending up in prison was an eye-opening moment for Diderot; he became aware of the consequences of talking openly about his political and philosophical stances and questioning authority. Scholars believe that this moment was consequential for Diderot embarking on a quest to make knowledge more available. It led him to the Encyclopedia.The EncyclopediaJean le Rond dAlambert, by Maurice Quentin de La Tour, 18th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile working as a translator, Diderot got the opportunity to translate Cyclopaedia: or, An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. The encyclopedia in question was published in 1728 in the English language, and it was quite popular. The French publisher, Andre Le Breton, wanted to commission Diderot to translate it into French. He was hired in 1745 as a translator and editor, but his vision for the project became way bigger.Diderot had always wanted to make scholarly works and knowledge more accessible, but after clashing with the authorities and being imprisoned, he decided to take a completely different approach to the project.Voltaire, by Nicolas de Largilliere, from 1718 until 1724. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Carnavalet, ParisWith the green light from Le Breton and with the help of his friend and co-editor, Jean le Rond dAalambert, Diderot decided to put aside the original idea of translating Cyclopedia. Instead, he wanted to publish a wholly new and original encyclopedia, which would be educationally compiled of knowledge and information, celebrating the Enlightenment ideals. The two editors did not want only to catalog the knowledge but also to spread ideas of progress, education, empirical research, and critical thinking. They also sought to call for a change in society, secularism, and more democratic institutions.Portrait of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, by Maurice Quentin de la Tour, third quarter of 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Muse Antoine-Lcuyer, Saint-Quentin, FranceThe volumes of the Encyclopedia were published between 1751 and 1772, containing more than 71,000 articles of which some of the most well-known scholars from the Enlightenment Era contributed, including Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Condillac, and Buffon. Before the Encyclopedia could be published, there were a lot of difficulties, such as censorship, financial problems, and threats from the government. However, Diderot found a way for the project to continue and for the scholarly articles to get to the right people so that a whole new generation of authors could be educated.Catherine the Great and Denis DiderotPortrait of Catherine II of Russia, by Alexander Roslin, 1780s. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, AustriaCatherine the Great, the Russian empress, grew quite fond of Denis Diderot and his work. The two got in contact when Diderot wanted to sell his library due to his financial struggles. Catherine the Great was famous for appreciating Enlightenment thinkers and their works, so she bought his library, allowing him to keep it while he was alive. She made him her librarian, which came with a nice salary, helping him overcome his money problems and giving him a less stressful environment to write and work.The two of them met in 1773 when the Russian empress welcomed him to her court in Saint Petersburg. It is said that they had an amicable relationship and connection and engaging conversations on various subjects. They talked a lot about the situation in Russia and much-needed reforms, and Diderot pointed out the necessity for a change in Russian society. Catherine referred to herself as a pragmatic ruler and called Diderot her philosopher. She was somewhat his patron, providing him with financial support.The relationship between the empress and the philosopher was unique as they came not only from two different parts of the world but because they represented two very different ideologies. Diderot was an Enlightenment Era philosopher who asked for change and progress, while Catherine was an absolute monarch who governed by the current systems of oppression. But their odd camaraderie turned into a genuine friendship and sponsorship, which enabled Diderot to write, promote the Enlightenment ideas, and make knowledge more available across the world.The Legacy of Denis DiderotLouis XV, King of France, by Louis-Michel van Loo, 1763. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt is difficult to measure the scope of the legacy and the impact of the work of Denis Diderot. His influence spreads from literature and philosophy to applied sciences and political theory. However, his most significant legacy is making knowledge available to everyone who wants to learn. The Encyclopedia is one of the most important projects in modern history. It directly influenced modern philosophy and helped educate people interested in learning.Another major legacy Dideorit left behind is the importance of standing up for what you believe, even if there is a potential price to pay. Diderot faced French authorities and the Churchs oppression, which gave him a taste of what it is like to speak your mind in an authoritative state. The important lesson that he learned from this traumatic experience is that he should continue supporting free speech, progress, science, and secularization, even if threats were looming over his head. He put education and the Enlightenment ideals before his well-being.Diderot was a true Enlightenment champion. He had an enormous impact on the state of modern society, whether directly through his prolific writing or through influencing other writers through his publication of the Encyclopedia.

In Christianity, relics are objects or articles of religious significance from the past. These items tend to be parts or fragments of a larger object that no longer exists and may include body parts of saints or holy persons (someone who has been beatified or canonized), their belongings, or something they have touched. In the Catholic tradition, relics are featured prominently and venerated. Every Roman Catholic Church has at least one first-class relic located under the main altar where the mass is presented.Classes of RelicsThe chief of Saint Yves, in the treasure of the Cathedral of Trguier, Brittany, France. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn Catholicism, relics are divided into one of three classes. The classification of a relic depends on how closely it is associated with the saint. The first class of relics is an object closely related to Jesus, such as a piece of the cross, or a physical body part of a saint such as a vial containing blood, a tooth, or a bone.The second class of relics are objects the saint owned or regularly used. Examples would be clothing, religious artifacts, or books.Third-class relics are those objects that came into contact with a higher-class relic and therefore constitute a more distant connection to the saint. Examples are accessories like rosaries, medals, crosses, oil, or water that touched a saint or a holy artifact and have been blessed by a priest afterward.The History and Necessity of RelicsReliquary for a Finger Bone, 15th century. Source: The Walters Art MuseumSome early Christian churches were built on catacombs or graves that held the remains of martyrs. These structures were generally constructed to memorialize the relevant saint(s) and the relics were thus considered part of the structure. Pilgrims who traveled to far-off religious sites would at times bring back relics for use in newly constructed structures that would serve as a memorial to a saint. It became part of ecclesiastical practice to incorporate relics in each building.It became Roman Catholic canon law that each structure, whether church or cathedral, with an altar for communion, must have a relic in or under the altar. The relics placed on the altars of churches and cathedrals are generally placed in the altars base and sealed to prevent theft or desecration.This requirement means that first-class relics must be available for each newly constructed cathedral or church. The Catholic Church holds relics in store for that and other purposes. One such repository of relics is in the Diocese, or Vicariate, of Rome. Some relics are kept in containers called reliquaries or lipsanoteca which can take many shapes and forms and often reflect the culture the relic hails from. These can range from large glass containers which allow for open display of the relic to small containers that preserve a fragment of significance.Relics in Medieval ChristianityLipsanoteca di Brescia, 4th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThough the practices of accumulating and preserving relics are common today, the significance of relics in medieval Christianity is notable. Possessing a relic brought honor and privilege to the owner and the veneration of relics rivaled the sacraments in the lives of many believers. They believed that relics held miraculous powers such as healing the sick or preventing disasters, which made them sought-after objects.Most relics were found in the Holy Land or in Italy, where the seat of the Roman Catholic Church was, and the church in Europe grew much faster than the supply of relics. With the occupation of the Holy Land by Muslims for much of medieval times, Rome became the primary source of relics during those times. Crusaders would, at times, return from their crusades in the Holy Land with treasure troves of relics to supply to eager buyers.Merchants, often of ill repute, would also loot catacombs and offer relics for sale. Arguably the most notorious relic merchant and swindler was Deusdona, a Roman deacon, who ran a family business of stealing relics in Italy and smuggling them to various parts of modern-day Germany.Reliquary Shrine, attributed to Jean de Touyl, 1325-50. Source: The MET, New YorkPossessing a relic meant increased pilgrimages to the church or cathedral that owned the relic, which translated into increased funds entering the coffers of the local diocese. In some instances, relics were stolen from one church only to resurface in another sometime afterward. The high value and demand for relics in the Medieval Period gave rise to a black market where objects of religious significance could be bought and sold.The problem with relics at that time was one of authenticity. Technology did not yet exist to scientifically verify which relics were authentic and which were not. One thing that convinced people of the authenticity of a relic was the accompanying miracles that were claimed to result from exposure to a relic. If a person was healed when exposed to a relic, the relic must have been authenticor so common belief held. The witness of the miracle would serve as marketing, drawing many others to visit the relic in search of their own miracle or just to have the honor and experience of being exposed to it.Case in PointReliquaries exhibited in the Basilica of S. Petronio in Bologna. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThomas Becket was the archbishop of Canterbury in the 12th century. Becket and King Henry II started as friends but as Becket ascended the hierarchy of the church and became Archbishop, he opposed Henrys attempts to gain authority over the Church. Four knights, allegedly misinterpreting an utterance by King Henry II, slew Becket in the Canterbury Cathedral. After his death, many miracles were reported from the surrounding area and some individuals who visited his tomb claimed to have been healed. Word of these miraculous phenomena reached Rome, and the pope declared Becket a saint.As a result, Canterbury became one of the most popular sites for pilgrimages. Monks would offer vials with St. Thomass blood for sale to those who visited the cathedral. It brought a significant income for the diocese and contributed to its prosperity. The blood was diluted with water to increase the volume of what could be sold and increase profits. Though the blood was diluted, the efficacy of the blood was reportedly not diminished at all.Effect of Relics on Medieval ChristianityA reliquary with relics of St. James, St. Matthew, St. Philip, St. Simon, St. Thomas, St. Stephen, and other saints, photo by John Stephen Dwyer. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBecause of the belief that relics held miraculous power, many people desired to have exposure to them or even to own some. The sales of relics became a significant source of revenue for the Catholic Church, as Christians from all over Europe would travel vast distances in search of the blessing, protection, and healing believed to come from the relics.Unfortunately, the popularity of relics and the potential they held to raise money resulted in a large amount of fakes flooding the market. Due to the low level of education of most of the medieval population, it was not difficult for swindlers to pass off fakes as authentic. There was little to no technology available at the time for authentication and believers had to rely on the word of clergy and merchants, which was in itself not reliable at all.The proliferation of fake relics became such a problem that it had to be addressed at the Council of Trent. The council declared that Bishops had to verify and authenticate relics more rigorously to curb the distribution of fakes.Martin Luthers close associate and protector, Frederick III of Saxony, also known as Frederick the Wise, owned a large collection of relics. It contained pieces associated with saints and biblical figures, straw from Jesuss manger, fragments of the True Cross, and the bones of saints. His collection of more than 19,000 items was one of the largest in Europe.Considering this, it is remarkable that Frederick remained a supporter of Martin Luther after the latters excommunication and in the light of his opposition to the veneration of relics. The role of relics in Protestant Christianity diminished significantly as Luther opposed it alongside the selling of indulgences.Reliquaries or LipsanotecaFull-body relic of Saint Hyacinthus in the former Cistercian monastery church of St. Marys Assumption in the Frstenfeld Monastery in Frstenfeldbruck. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBecause relics were so valuable and were often on display for pilgrims, they were usually kept in reliquaries or lipsanoteca. These cases were generally adorned with elaborate artwork. Lipsanoteca has the same meaning as a reliquary but refers to a small number of reliquaries from the 4th century made of ivory with the Brescia Casket being a prime example. The lipsanoteca in Cappella delle Reliquie of the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna is an altarpiece that holds many reliquaries.Though most relics tend to be fairly small, some consist of the whole body of a saint. Such is the case with Hyacinth of Caesarea. He was a young Christian who lived at the beginning of the 2nd century and served as an assistant to Emperor Trajans chamberlain. When he refused to take part in pagan ceremonial practices, he was imprisoned and only offered food sacrificed to the pagan gods. He refused to eat it and starved to death in 108 CE at the age of twelve, believing it was not permitted for a Christian to eat such food. His remains are on display in a glass case in the Church of the Assumption, the church of the former Cistercian Frstenfeld Abbey in Bavaria. The remains are elaborately decorated with jewels. His body is one of the most complete relics in Christianity.

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