These Under-$10 Amazon Gadgets Are So Genius, We Wish We’d Known About Them Years Ago Credit: Better Homes & Gardens / Amazon There are some day-altering grievances you just can’t foresee until they happen—small, but annoying inconveniences that seemingly have no clear solution. A stitch popping while you’re at the office, or injuring your hand while steaming a garment for an important...

Cest dans le cadre de la soire douverture de la Gamescom 2025 que le studio TT Games a finalement dvoil son prochain projet. LEGO Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight sera disponible en 2026 sur PC, PS5, Xbox Series...

SpaceX slams state broadband funding, wants satellite internet everywhere SpaceX is again battling states over internet funding, as the company pushes a satellite-first agenda amid a growing need for direct internet connections.In a filing submitted to the Louisiana Office of Broadband Development and Connectivity on August 15, the company accused...

Google offers live translation for calls, AI journaling to Pixel 10 series The Google Pixel 10 series is officially out and, to no one's surprise, numerous AI features are packed into the new phones. The event took a very different approach from previous keynotes, by bringing on a whole lot of star power to explain how people can use AI features...

The start of Viking raids in England, and the start of the Viking Age more generally, is usually dated to 793 CE when the Vikings sacked the holy island of Lindisfarne. This initiated centuries of raiding, followed by invading, with Vikings claiming English territory and creating areas of Danelaw. But what happened at the end of the 8th century that caused the Vikings to start their aggressive raids? Why was England consistently targeted for centuries? And why did the age of Viking raiding come to an end?Who Were the Vikings and When Was the Viking Age?Viking longship depicted on a runestone from Tjngvide, Gotland, c. 800-1100. Source: Wikimedia CommonsToday, Viking is often used as a general term for the people from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark between the 8th and 11th centuries and their descendants who settled in places like Iceland and Greenland. But these people never referred to themselves as Vikings. Instead, they would have called themselves Danes, Swedes, or another ethnic appellation. It is probably more accurate to call them Northmen, a term used by neighboring communities to refer to these men who came from the North.The word Vikingr in Old Norse refers to pirates. Many Northmen were pirates who raided neighbors for their wealth, but not all. There were also farmers, traders, and craftsmen. But many neighboring peoples, like those of England, principally had contact with the Northmen through their piratical raiding activity, so they thought of them as Vikings, while referring to them by a variety of terms including Northmen, Danes, and Vikings.The Vikings were also not the only pirates of their day. The Swedes themselves complained of Estonian Vikings who attacked their settlements, and Umayyad pirates were also busy raiding Spain in the 8th century.So, when we refer to the Viking Age, we are referring to a period during which some Northmen raided their neighbors, which primarily happened between 750 and 1066 CE.Impact of Climate ChangeSami people living in harsh northern conditions in Norway/Sweden, c. 1900-1920. Source: Wikimedia CommonsA variety of contributing factors led the Northmen to look beyond their own territory for resources and to the start of Viking raids. Changing population density patterns in Viking territories is believed to have been an important factor in the century or so preceding the start of the raids. Most scholars agree that good harvests in the 8th century saw populations increase. This placed pressure on resources, encouraging people to look outward for new opportunities and resources, even though the region continued to be sparsely populated at the time.Some scholars suggest that the impact of this change was intensified because it followed a period of hardship caused by a volcanic winter that impacted much of the northern hemisphere in 536 CE, known by some scholars as the worst year to be alive. It is believed that in 536, three volcanoes erupted around the same time causing an extended period of low temperatures, which is traceable through dendrochronology and ice cores. While the effects were at their worst in 536 CE, with Byzantine, Chinese, and Irish authors recording a year when the sun shone from behind a haze and gave no warmth and extended frosts impacted harvests and led to famine, the impact could have lasted decades.Reconstructed Viking Age longhouse excavated at Borg, the Lofoten Islands, Norway. Source: The Lofotr Viking Museum, BstadScientists believe that in Scandinavia, where conditions are already challenging, surface temperatures cooled by around 3 C (37.4 F) overall and around 6.9 C (44.42 F) during the growing season. There was also a significant reduction in rainfall during the growing season, reducing by 15-20 mm (0.59-0.78 inches) per month. This resulted in significant hardship and population decline. Archaeological excavations show that crops failed, and farms were abandoned. The population may have dropped by as much as 50 percent.However, archaeologists note that while the population was sparse, many fortifications were constructed at the time, even though the Vikings had no known external invaders. This suggests that there may have been significant infighting among the Vikings for scarce resources.Overall, the relatively rapid fluctuation in population caused by climate factors in a part of the world that is already on the edge of where human settlements can thrive placed pressure on resources, and people had to start looking outward for ways to sustain themselves.Rise of a Warrior EliteChess piece made of walrus ivory, depicting a Viking berserker, via National Museums Scotland, EdinburghArchaeologists suggest that infighting among the Vikings for resources led to the rise of a warrior elite class, which would eventually make the formation of raiding parties possible.The structure of Viking society was notably different from that of many of their neighbors. At this time, Anglo-Saxon England was divided into Christian kingdoms focused on a king and a small elite class who owned most of the countrys land. This land was worked by peasants and serfs living a subsistence lifestyle. In contrast, the Vikings were organized into relatively small communities led by a local chief. Within the community, there would be scores of relatively wealthy landowners who had prosperous farms worked by family members, paid hands, and slaves.Construction and oar details from a reconstructed Viking ship. Source: Museum of the Viking Age, NorwayRaised above subsistence, many Viking landowners had the wealth to invest in ships and weapons and the time to spend several months a year away from home as part of relatively egalitarian raiding parties. A story from the Frankish Annales has a band of Danish Vikings arriving in Frankish lands. When the Frankish emissary asks to see the Viking leader, the Vikings respond that they are all leaders.This all seems to have culminated in a practice recorded in the sagas of leaders, and probably other wealthy landowners, sending their younger sons away from home to reduce inheritance conflicts. But these younger sons were equipped with ships and resources to make their way in the world as raiders, traders, or explorers. According to the sagas, this is what the legendary chief Ragnar Lodbrok did with his younger sons, including Bjorn Ironside and Ivar the Boneless.These Vikings, who started to look outward, did not just restrict their activity to raiding. They also settled Iceland, Greenland, and Orkney, claimed territories in England, Ireland, and France, worked as mercenaries in the Byzantine Varangian guard, and established communities and trade routes in the east as far away as parts of Russia.Enabling TechnologyA manuscript depiction of Danes landing from ships, from MS M.736 fol. 9v, c. 12th century. Source: Morgan Library, New YorkScholars also point to changing Viking ship technology in the 7th and 8th centuries that allowed them to travel further, bringing them into contact with new, wealthy cultures. The evidence suggests that sails were adopted in the 7th century CE, allowing the Vikings to travel across larger bodies of open water. This saw them make it across the Balkan Sea in the 8th century, to the British Isles in the 9th century, to Iceland and Greenland by the 10th century, and even reach the Americas by the start of the 11th century.Nevertheless, the Vikings still favored shallow ships with a maximum draught of less than a meter. This design was useful for sailing in shallow waters close to shore and up the rivers and fjords that characterize much of Scandinavias coastline but provided little protection in the open sea. Nevertheless, this helped the Vikings in their raiding activity, such as when they sailed up the Seine and launched a surprise attack on a relatively unprepared Paris.Interestingly, we do not know how the Vikings navigated. They have left no evidence that they used maps or navigational equipment akin to sextants to measure latitude. Nevertheless, they were clearly some of the most skilled navigators of the age.OpportunityGravestone marker from Lindisfarne showing men attacking with Viking-style swords, c. 900. Source: WikidataWhen the Vikings landed in England at the end of the 8th century, they were probably surprised to find monasteries, which were poorly fortified buildings filled with extravagant riches. At the time, the local Christians did not see the need to fortify their monasteries, since it would be sacrilege to steal from one.Consequently, early raids were probably very successful. Combined with the unpreparedness of their victims, the evidence also suggests that the Vikings were much bigger and stronger than their southern neighbors, with some warriors measuring six feet tall. They may have been almost ten centimeters (4 inches) taller than the English and the French on average. With a better diet based on proteins rather than grains, they were probably stronger.Along with gold and silver, one of the major commodities that the Vikings took from England to trade was slaves. Again, when they started raiding, the Anglo-Saxons must have seemed like easy pickings, even though the small size of Viking ships limited the number of slaves they could take on any particular raid. When they raided Lindisfarne in 793, the Vikings reportedly had just three ships, so maybe took a dozen slaves. But when Paris was attacked around 50 years later, the Vikings reportedly had 120 ships.Many slaves were taken back to Viking lands and sold to locals, but bigger slave trades soon developed. Written records suggest major slave markets at Hebedy, in the south of Denmark, and at Boghar on the Volga River in the east. Historians now believe that slaves were the main commodity traded by the Vikings.From Raiding to InvadingManuscript image showing Sweyn Forkbeard riding a blue horse battling the Anglo-Saxon King Aethelred the Unready, MS EE 3.59, fol. 4r, c. 13th century. Source: Cambridge University LibrariesGroups of Vikings continued to raid England until the end of the Viking Age, but the dynamic between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons living in England changed in the second half of the 9th century. It started with the arrival of the Great Heathen Army in 866, reportedly led by the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok to avenge his death.Whatever the reason for their arrival, the Vikings came with a relatively large force of 3,000 Vikings, as evidenced by large Viking camps in Lincolnshire, Staffordshire, and Yorkshire. This time they werent just after slaves and gold, they claimed territory. By 871, they had defeated the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia, leaving only Wessex undefeated. This led King Alfred of Wessex to negotiate a peace settlement with the Vikings, giving them control of all the land in England north and east of an imaginary line running from east London to Chester. These territories were considered to be governed by Danelaw, and their most famous settlement was Jorvik, now known as York.Bodies excavated at St John College, Oxford. Source: Museum of OxfordThe Vikings settled and farmed, but raids continued. For example, in response to increased raiding, in 1002 CE King Aethelred ordered the Saint Brices Day Massacre of all Danes in the area. It is unclear who all the Danes were and whether this included peaceful settlers, women, and children but there is evidence that there was a massacre. A royal charter from 1004 CE remarks on the most just extermination of the Vikings at Oxford. It describes the rebuilding of the local church after it was burned down to kill the Danes taking shelter inside.In 2008, archaeologists discovered the bodies of 37 people under St Johns College, Oxford, believed to be victims of the massacre. The bodies include 35 males aged 16 and 25 and two children. Chemical analysis suggests that they were Vikings, and the bodies have been dated to c. 960-1020. The bodies were unarmed and showed no defensive wounds, with most of the wounds on their backs, suggesting that they were fleeing.Of course, the Vikings retaliated, eventually conquering Wessex and claiming kingship of all England for a brief period at the start of the 11th century. The Vikings had become part of the political and social landscape of England.Why Did Viking Raids End?Viking Age Christian cross found at Lund, Sweden. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSo, why did Viking raids eventually stop by the end of the 11th century? Again, several factors played a role. First, the communities that the Vikings preyed upon learned to better defend themselves. They started to fortify their monasteries and cities and moved some to less vulnerable inland locations. Smaller kingdoms also solidified into larger ones under the rule of a single king. They gathered around them a permanent professional army that was better able to combat the Viking threat. While the Vikings were big, tall, strong, ferocious, and experienced warriors, raiding and fighting was only ever a part-time job.The Vikings also changed, largely due to the adoption of Christianity in the 10th and 11th centuries. Conversion probably started as a necessary political demonstration to form alliances with powerful neighbors, such as the Holy Roman Empire, who would only form alliances with other Christians. But over time, Christianity suited the Viking leaders who were also expanding their territories into larger kingdoms. Olaf Tryggvason can be seen using Christianity to consolidate his power across Norway at the start of the 11th century.King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway, by Peter Arbo, 1860. Source: Norse-Mythology.orgChristianity supported the idea of the divine right to kingship and loyalty. This allowed the powerful Viking rulers to consolidate their power without the need for common consent from wealthy Viking landowners. The story of the life of Snorri Sturluson shows that this was a consistent issue for Viking kings. There were also fewer wealthy landowners as wealth became concentrated in the hands of a few. This resulted in large numbers of landless men, tied to leased land, paying rent and fees while supporting their families. Consequently, there were fewer men available to launch raids.Furthermore, Christians raiding and enslaving fellow Christians did not comply with the tenets of Christianity. For example, in the Bjarnar Saga Htdlakappa, King Olaf tells Bjorn that he wants him to give up raiding, saying, Though you feel it suits you well, Gods law is often violated. The Vikings had to look for new excuses to attack their neighbors, such as the Church-sanctified Northern Crusade against the Wendish pagans in the Baltic and the Livonian Crusade into Latvia and Estonia in the 12th century.Basically, as the Vikings integrated into the Christian world and began to look more like their Christian neighbors, three centuries of Viking raids came to an end, and with them, the Viking Age.

The Arthurian legends tell us that King Arthur was supported in his rulership by an alliance of knights known as the Knights of the Round Table, referring to a special table constructed at Camelot that was designed to give every knight an equal place. The number of Knights of the Round Table ranges from as few as 12 to as many as 1,600 depending on the source. In this article we will meet some of the most important knights with the most interesting roles to play in the Arthurian legends.Sir Lancelot and Sir GalahadLancelot Brings Guenevere to Arthur, from the Book of Romance, Andrew Lang, 1902. Source: Project GutenbergThe most famous of all the Knights of the Round Table is undoubtedly Lancelot. He was generally portrayed as Arthurs greatest and most powerful knight. For this reason, he appears throughout much of medieval Arthurian literature, being one of the most popular characters. Although he was a valiant hero who went on many adventures, he is perhaps most famous for his affair with Guinevere, Arthurs wife. This ended up causing a war between Arthur and Lancelot that ultimately resulted in the downfall of the Knights of the Round Table.While a popular character, Lancelot is not introduced into the Arthurian legends until the 12th century by Chretien de Troyes. This leads many to conclude that he was invented by that French writer. An alternative theory is that he was actually an adapted version of Maelgwn Gwynedd, one of Arthurs allies in Welsh tradition.Lancelots son was Galahad, the perfect knight. Young and handsome, he was the one chosen by God to find the Holy Grail and take it to the holy island of Sarras, ending the famous Grail quest.Sir PercivalIllustration from a 15th-century manuscript of Perceval, showing Percival arriving at a hermitage. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBefore Galahad was introduced into the Arthurian legends, the Grail hero was Percival. Like Galahad, Percival was viewed as not just a valiant hero, but also as exceptionally holy. This is what enabled him to be worthy of the Holy Grail. Part of the reason for this was his unusual innocence, which was a result of his mother raising him far from the rest of society.The legends are far from consistent regarding Percivals family. However, his father is usually presented as being a certain King Pellinore, while his brothers usually include Sir Lamorak and Sir Aglovale. Both of these were Knights of the Round Table as well.According to the legend, Percival found the Grail Castle and was shown a grand and marvelous procession, which included the Holy Grail. Unfortunately, he fails to ask about the Grail, which would have healed the Fisher King of the castle if he had done so. Percival thus spends the rest of his career attempting to find the Grail Castle again so that he can ask the question and heal the king and his land. Eventually, he is able to do so. He asks about the Holy Grail during the procession, thus healing the Fisher King, who then seems to disappear to heaven. After this, Percival is made the keeper of the Grail.Sir BedivereSir Bedivere put King Arthur gently into the barge, William Henry Margetson, 1914. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSir Bedivere is one of the earliest of the Knights of the Round Table to appear in Arthurian literature. He is mentioned in one of the earliest Arthurian sources, including the Welsh poem Pa Gur from c. 900. In those Welsh texts, his name is usually spelt Bedwyr. In the Life of St Cadoc, from 1086, he appears as a close associate of Arthur when the latter was a youth. This indicates that he was one of Arthurs closest companions throughout his career.In Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137, Bedver appears as one of Arthurs allies. He goes with Arthur to fight a giant terrorising people in Brittany, helping Arthur to kill it on Mont Saint-Michel.Perhaps Bediveres most famous role today is related to Arthurs final moments. After being mortally wounded at the Battle of Camlann, Arthur tells Bedivere to throw his sword, Excalibur, into the nearby lake. After twice only pretending to do this, thinking the sword too precious to cast away, Bedivere finally does as Arthur requests. A hand reaches up and grabs the sword before it hits the water. Interestingly, this role was originally fulfilled by his cousin Sir Griflet, a different Knight of the Round Table.Sir Uriens and Sir YvainA depiction of Sir Yvain fighting a lion in a 15th century manuscript MSS BNF fr. 112. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom a historical perspective, two of the most interesting Knights of the Round Table are Sir Uriens and his son, Sir Yvain. Unlike many of the other Knights of the Round Table, these figures are widely accepted as historical kings. The former was Urien Rheged, a powerful king of the north of Britain in the 6th century, and the latter was his son, called Owain. The territory of the legendary Sir Uriens is often named Gorre, apparently from the Old French voirre, meaning glass.Sir Uriens had Yvain by Morgan le Fey, the evil sorceress who constantly opposed Arthurs kingdom. Uriens does not feature very much in the early Arthurian sources. However, the romances that came after Geoffrey of Monmouth often present him as one of the main opposers of Arthurs rule after he is made king. He leads an alliance of rebel kings against Arthur, which the latter puts down at the Battle of Bedegraine. Despite this initial conflict, Uriens was reconciled to Arthur and became one of the Knights of the Round Table, as did his son Yvain.Sir TristanIllustration of Tristan and Isolde drinking the love potion, vrard dEspinques, c. 15th century. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceOf all the Knights of the Round Table, Sir Tristan may be the one who is most famous in his own right rather than through association with King Arthur. The legend about Tristan tells the story of his love for the beautiful Isolde, or Iseult, and how the evil King Mark tried to put an end to this romance. The story of their romance is so isolated from the rest of King Arthurs realm that some scholars believe that it was originally a separate story. However, there is no clear evidence of this.According to the legend, Tristan was given the responsibility to take Iseult from her home in Ireland to King Mark of Cornwall, to whom she had been given in marriage. However, they both accidentally drink a love potion during the journey and therefore fall in love with each other. Naturally, this causes conflict with King Mark, Iseults intended groom, which is the main plot of the legend of Tristan.Sir GawainDepiction of Gawain fighting Yvain, Garrett MS 125, c. late-13th century. Source: Princeton University LibraryAnother one of the Knights of the Round Table who is particularly notable is Sir Gawain. He derives from the figure of Gwalchmai in Welsh tradition. This character was the nephew of King Arthur by his sister, Anna, and King Lot of Lothian. The name of this sister, Gawains mother, varies considerably depending on the source. She is more commonly known as Morgause.Gawain is generally portrayed as being young during King Arthurs reign. In fact, Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us that Gawain was just twelve years old at the time of Arthurs special coronation, which occurred years after Arthurs final battle against the Saxons. He was said to have been sent to Pope Supplicius, possibly the historical Pope Pelagius, at that age.This character appears in numerous pieces of Arthurian literature. However, he is most famous for the story of Gawain and the Green Knight. In this story, he cuts off the head of a tall green knight who challenges Arthurs court. Unfortunately for Gawain, this does not prove fatal, and he is forced to allow the Green Knight to do the same to him the following year. This is revealed to be one of Morgan le Feys tricks to torment Guinevere.Sir KayDepiction of Sir Kay fighting at a tournament, Howard Pyle, 1903. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLike Bedivere, Sir Kay is one of the earliest Knights of the Round Table to appear in the Arthurian legends. He appears in early Welsh tradition as Cai, usually the companion of Arthur and Bedwyr together. In the early Welsh poem Pa Gur, his death is mentioned in conjunction with the death of Llacheu, King Arthurs own son. It is implied that they both died at the same event. The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen explains that it was one of Arthurs own allies who betrayed them and killed Cai. Other clues indicate that the conflict in question was Mordreds rebellion, which culminated at the Battle of Camlann.In non-Welsh tales, Sir Kay is made Arthurs older foster brother. This is by virtue of the fact that Arthur was entrusted into the care of Kays father, Ector, by Merlin soon after his birth. In some later versions, Kay is presented as having a difficult and contentious personality. Nevertheless, he is generally loyal to Arthur. However, some tales attribute the death of Arthurs son, Loholt (another version of Llacheu) to Kay. In reality, this probably comes from non-Welsh writers misunderstanding the Welsh references to Cai being associated with Llacheus death.Recap: The Knights of the Round TableDepiction of King Arthur with his Knights of the Round Table having a vision of the Holy Grail, BNF 120 fol. 524v, c. 15th century. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceThe Arthurian legends speak of numerous Knights of the Round Table. In this article, we have examined only a small selection of them, looking at the most famous and important ones. We have seen that Lancelot was the most famous knight, being Arthurs powerful and trusted companion. Despite this trust, he pursued an affair with Guinevere, eventually resulting in the downfall of Arthurs kingdom. Lancelots son Galahad, in contrast, was exceptionally holy and found the Holy Grail when no one else could. In earlier versions, the Grail hero was Percival, a young knight known for his excessive innocence and holiness. Sir Bedivere and Sir Kay are both characters from very early in Welsh tradition. The former is most famous for throwing Excalibur into the lake, and Kay is famous for being Arthurs older foster brother.Sir Uriens of Gorre and his son Sir Owain ultimately derive from historical figures. The former heavily opposed Arthur at the start of his rule, but the two men eventually became close allies. Tristan, for his part, was the knight who magically fell in love with Iseult and came into conflict with King Mark. Finally, we have seen that Sir Gawain was Arthurs nephew and the young knight who fought against the Green Knight.

Tula, or Tollan, was the city where the Toltec civilization was born. Beginning as two cities in succession, it grew to become an empire that inspired countless Aztec myths. The Aztecs claimed to have descended from the people of Tula and mimicked their architecture while building Tenochtitlan. Past scholars noticed a striking similarity between the architecture at Tula and Chichn Itz, which also suggests a connection to the early Mayans. Undoubtedly, the Toltecs influenced Mesoamerican history, but the stories told by the Aztecs may be more myth than truth.Tollan: Mythology of the Toltec CapitalToltec City Main Pyramid, 8-12th century CE, Hal Box and Logan Wagner, Mexican Architecture and Urban Design. Source: University of Texas at AustinWhen the Spanish arrived in what is now Mexico, the Aztecs regaled them with stories of the great city of Tula, or Tollan Xicocotitlan. The Aztecs claimed they were the descendants of the people of Tollanthe Toltecs. Their stories told of a powerful yet peaceful civilization that grew giant ears of corn as well as cotton that came in multiple colors and had no need to be dyed. The tales of their skill and power had thoroughly infiltrated Aztec mythology. In Nahuatl, the word Toltec meant artisan or one from Tollan, and the Aztecs considered these people to be their intellectual and cultural precursors.Their stories claimed that this once-great empire had created the calendar and the Nahuatl language and discovered the medicine that the Aztecs used. According to Aztec legend, in the 10th century, the Toltecs were led by a great king and priest named Topiltzin Quetzalctl. This king was the son of the goddess Chimalman and the god Mixcatl. It was believed that Topiltzin received the name Quetzalcoatl after founding a cult surrounding the feathered serpent that was often featured in Aztec and other Mesoamerican mythologies. According to the legend, Topiltzin traveled across the lands, founding and naming small civilizations, before finally moving to the coast, where he burned himself in a canoe. The story of Topiltzin, along with the sensational stories of many other Toltec leaders, would be passed down by the Aztecs until they were recorded by Spanish chroniclers.Early Tollan and Tula ChicoToltec figurine made of pottery, undated. Source: The British MuseumThough the Aztecs have many tall tales regarding the Toltecs, archaeological evidence has proven that most are not true. The one thing from these legends that is known to be correct is that the Toltecs established a very successful civilization at Tollan before its abandonment. The design of Tollan led archaeologists to believe that it had been modeled after Teotihuacan, the largest city in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican history. Teotihuacan was known for its carefully planned structure, which included a central citadel, apartments, and streets laid out in a neat grid pattern. The city had a thriving economy that relied on agriculture, manufacturing, and trade. The obsidian tools, figurines, and pottery that Teotihuacans artisans made were well-regarded by surrounding civilizations.Tollan first appeared as a large regional power between 800 and 900 CE, not long after the fall of Teotihuacan. Some evidence suggests that before 800 CE, the Chichimeca people had settled in the region and lived alongside other groups until the fall of Teotihuacan. It was during the Epiclassic Period, from 600 to 900 CE, that the emergence of the Coyotlatelco culture is seen in the archaeological record. This culture is well known for its distinctive pottery style. Around 600 CE, small hilltop settlements began to merge into a larger city that archaeologists today call Tula Chico.During this time, the people of Tula built ball courts, pyramids, and other structures, all while developing the early culture of the Toltecs. Around the 8th century CE, Tula had grown into a moderately large city of about 20,000 people. However, by 900 CE, the city had been largely abandoned for no clear reason. Some evidence suggests that while a few temples remained in use after Tula Chicos decline, other structures were burned and destroyed.Tula Grande, a Second Life for the ToltecsToltec Atlantean figures on top of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, 8-12th century CE, Hal Box and Logan Wagner, Mexican Architecture and Urban Design. Source: University of Texas at AustinSoon after the abandonment of Tula Chico came the birth of Tula Grande, less than a mile away. Major growth of the city happened between 900 and 1200 CE, reaching a population of about 55,000 people. The people of Tula Grande grew domesticated crops such as corn, amaranth, beans, chili peppers, squash, cactus, and cotton. Like the Olmecs before them, they had an extensive obsidian tool market that sourced raw materials from the Pachuca Mines. Obsidian would be shaped by experts within each family before being traded to places as far as present-day Guatemala and Costa Rica. The people of Tula Grande were also experts at making fabric, weaving fibers made from cotton and cacti. Pottery was another specialty for which they could thank their Coyotlatelco ancestors.Studies of their bones revealed that they would have often sat in chairs and that they suffered from few diseases. An abundance of ball courts suggests a great love of the Mesoamerican game, which entailed hitting a ball through a stone hoop using only the hips or elbows. The city also contained many new temples and palaces used in conjunction with the old temples that remained in Tula Chico. It is believed that the parts of Tula Chico that survived abandonment became the ceremonial precinct of the newly established city of Tula Grande.However, this new city was not immune to the problems that had caused the downfall of those before it. Society at Tula Grande had disappeared by 1200, leaving behind ruins that would be occupied by another civilization that was gaining powerthe Aztecs. There is no definitive known reason for the abandonment of Tula. However, some archaeologists speculate that invasions from Chichimecas in the north and a lack of rainfall to water their crops would have made supporting the population difficult.Toltec Art and the Mystery of Chichen ItzaA portion of the Coatepantli shows a skeleton being consumed or emerging from the mouth of a serpent, Undated. Source: JSTORThough the Aztecs were interested in the mythical stories surrounding Tollan, it was the art the Toltecs produced that intrigued archaeologists. Art often came in the form of carvings on the sides of pyramids, usually depicting jaguars, coyotes, and vultures eating human hearts. One significant piece of art from Tula Grande is the Coatepantli, which translates to Wall of Serpents. Carved into the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, the wall depicts human skeletons emerging from the mouths of or being devoured by feathered serpents. Analysis of the wall revealed that the skeletons and teeth of the serpents would have been painted white at one time, while the bodies of the serpents would have either been blue or yellow.Because rituals were known to occur on the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, some have hypothesized that the skeletons depict people from different social classes experiencing the stages of death and ascension to the afterlife. However, other researchers have noted that surrounding Mesoamerican civilizations often used human bones in death cult rituals. This led them to believe that the depictions of skeletons on the walls of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl would have been used in cults at Tula in the place of physical bones.A statue of the feathered serpent at the base of the Temple of Kukulcan, c. 800. Source: JSTORThe Coatepantli wasnt the only mystery surrounding Toltec art. In the past, many early archaeologists had noted the fact that the designs of Tula and the Mayan city of Chichn Itz were eerily similar. Both cities displayed an appreciation for sports, as evidenced by the number of ball courts that had been built. They also used some of the same imagery within their art, such as the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl and the Atlantean soldier columns. This led to multiple theories of how the two cities came to be so extraordinarily similar. The Mayans had told stories of a Toltec leader called Kukulcan, another name for Quetzalcoatl, who helped them build Chichn Itz. This led to an initial theory that the Toltecs, early in their occupation of Tula, had invaded the Mayan lands to the south, where they built the city of Chichen Itza. However, recent scholars have suggested that the similarity between the architecture of the two cities is merely due to a Mesoamerican exchange of ideas and culture.Myth vs. History: Tula and the ToltecsPyramid and Plaza of the Moon, ca. 100-200 with later enlargements, completed ca. 300. Source: JSTORFrom examination of the archaeological remains at Tula, it can be said that the Toltecs were a great and powerful people. However, many modern researchers doubt that the Aztec stories about Tollan were actually about Tula. Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan were both much larger than Tula and contained populations upwards of 100,000 people. By comparison, Tula had a population that was half that of the aforementioned cities. The buildings were also constructed using adobe, which did not withstand the test of time as well as the stone of other Mesoamerican cities. Another point that has been brought to the forefront of this investigation concerns the meaning of the words Tollan, Toltec, and Tula. In Nahuatl, Toltec can mean artisan as well as inhabitant of Tula. Meanwhile, Tollan can mean the city of Tula but can also mean a place of reeds. Further research into Aztec records has revealed that the word Tollan was loosely used for any great city of the time, not just for Tula.Toltec dish made of pottery, nd. Source: The British MuseumSome modern scholarship suggests that the Aztec stories of Tollan may have combined the histories of two citiesTeotihuacan and Tulainto one great creation myth. Teotihuacan is often referred to as the primordial Tollan, while Tula is the historical Tollan. If this theory is true, it would explain the stories that the Aztecs told about a great city built by the gods, assuming they were referencing the breathtaking city of Teotihuacan. However, there is still debate over whether the Aztecs combined these two cities into the story of Tollan or were just referring to Teotihuacan as Tollan.Despite these uncertainties, one undeniable truth is that the Toltecs and Tula had an enormous impact on the Aztecs and the history of Mesoamerica. Even though the city existed for just a short time, its art and architectural styles were used long after its abandonment, in the creation of the great Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.

President Trump attempted to ban TikTok in his first term, but five years later, the White House has created its own TikTok account.

Space exploration is a risky endeavor, and unfortunately not all of the missions sent up will be successful, such was the fate of Lunar Trailblazer.

President Trump attempted to ban TikTok in his first term, but five years later, the White House has created its own TikTok account.