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The Mughals were a Muslim empire that expanded from the modern regions of north Afghanistan to Bangladesh at its height in the 17th century. They were tolerant towards other cultures and religions, spoke Persian in their court system, and were one of the wealthiest empires in the Indian subcontinent. Lasting over several centuries, from 1526 to 1857, there were over twenty-one emperors of the Mughal Empire. However, several stand out in history more so than others for their social and political policies, as well as their cultural contributions.Bbur: The First Emperor of the Mughal EmpirePhotograph of the Taj Mahal. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe first emperor of the Mughal Dynasty was not from modern-day India, but in fact, Central Asia. ahr al-Dn Muammad Bbur, or Bbur, was born in the region of modern Uzbekistan. Bbur was a descendant of Genghis Khan, the first leader of the Mongols, and Tmr, the leader of the Timurid Empire. Tmr, although known for his brutality, led an empire that was a cultural mix of Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish.Tmr has also been referred to as Tamerlane, a moniker of Tmr the lame, a reference to a limp he may have had when he walked. This regal lineage was emphasized in the Muizz al-ansb or Glorifier of Pedigrees, a 15th-century family tree of the Mughals. The term Mughal is in fact an Arabic pronunciation of the word Mongol. Thus, even the name Mughal creates a link between the empire and that of the Mongols.How, then, did Bbur end up in the region of present-day north India? Bbur was kicked out of modern Uzbekistan by an opposing power in 1501 and headed south towards Kabul in present-day Afghanistan. It is theorized that he was initially invited to North India to interfere in the power politics between leaders of the Delhi Sultanate in the 16th century. Governor Daulat Khan Lodi reached out to help him overthrow Ibraham Lodi, the leader at that time.Allegedly, Ibraham intended to remove Daulat Khan from his position as governor, and was apparently not well-liked by his contemporaries and subjects due to his brutality. After three years, in 1526, Bbur and his armies fully conquered present-day Delhi, replacing the Turkish-Muslim Delhi Sultanate and establishing the Mughal Dynasty. During his reign, which was only four years from 1526 to 1530, Bbur expanded the Mughal empire west towards the Indus River and east towards Bihar, even befriending Hindu leaders in South India.Bbur and His Interest in the Natural WorldBabur Crossing the River Saun, 1598. Source: National Museum, New DelhiBesides being the first to establish the Mughal Dynasty, Bbur also left behind a legacy of interest in the natural world. As someone from the landscape of Central Asia, the flora and fauna of present-day India amazed him. So much so that he recorded them in vivid detail in his autobiography, known today as the Baburnama, the Book of Bbur. Baburnama was the name given to his memoir by his grandson Akbar, a Mughal emperor himself, who commissioned a translation of it from Chagatai Turkish to Persian.The fascination with natural life seeped into Mughal culture through architecture, works of art, and gardens, which would come to symbolize manifestations of Paradise on earth for later Mughal emperors. Bbur created the first Mughal garden, near what would become the Taj Mahal, known today as the Ram Bagh in Agra, northern India. His descendants carried on this interest in nature through various cultural projects, such as the Taj Mahal, which will be explored in more detail below.Akbar: The Greatest Emperor of the Mughal EmpirePhotograph of the Fatehpur Sikri taken by Mrigank Verma.Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, or Akbar, was the third emperor of the Mughal Dynasty and grandson of Bbur. He is credited with expanding the foundation of religious and cultural tolerance that would come to characterize the Mughal Dynasty. This was under the philosophy of sulh-i kul, an Arabic word and Sufi principle, meaning peace for all. This philosophy of rule was an extension of belief initiated by Bbur, who commissioned several Hindu temples during his time of rule. Akbar created an empire that was both cosmopolitan and religiously tolerant, creating decades of prosperity during his almost forty-year reign from 1566 to 1605.Guided by the philosophy of sulh-i kul, it was important for Akbar to weave Hindus into political life. He created a new political system called the mansabdari, which employed Hindus into high-ranking positions of government in order to give them power and influence within Mughal society. Akbar also ended the jizya, which was a religious tax for non-Muslims that targeted specifically Hindu people. Further, he ended the forced conversion of slaves to Islam. Another representation of his concern with providing Hindus with power and influence was through his marriage to Hindu princesses, whom he did not force to convert to Islam. Merging with Hindu elites within modern India allowed Akbar to absorb lands and wealth that they didnt previously have access to. Thus, tolerance on a political and social level became an economically viable outcome for the Mughal Empire, which would have an impact on culture.Culture in the Mughal Empire Under AkbarThe Three Trees of India, Folio from a Baburnama, late 16th century. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkAkbar was also an avid commissioner and promoter of the arts during his reign. In many ways, culture was an extension of his philosophy of cosmopolitanism and tolerance that he practiced in his social and political policies. Akbar commissioned the construction of Hindu temples, most famously the Nilkanth Temple in northeast India, for his favorite wife, Mariam-uz-Zamani, who was Hindu.Perhaps the best architectural example of Akbars religious duality would be the Fatehpur Sikri, a small city built west of Agra under Akbars commission. Fatehpur Sikri included mosques, gardens, and homes that combined both Hindu and Islamic architectural elements. Additionally, as previously mentioned, Akbar commissioned the translation of Bburs autobiography in addition to painters to create images accompanying the Persian script. In the Baburnama, famous artists such as Mansur, considered one of the greatest Mughal painters, and Farrukh Beg created naturalistic scenes of landscapes, animals, and also historical figures and scenes. Typically, Islamic cultures dont depict people, so why are they included in the Baburnama? This type of manuscript, known as miniatures, became a style of art introduced into Persia by the Mongols, who were influenced by the paintings of China.The Height of the Mughal Empire Jahangir and Shah JahanPhotograph of the Shalamar Bagh. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNur-ud-din Muhammad Salim, known as Jahangir, was the son of Akbar. He continued his fathers legacy of cultural and religious tolerance and promotion. Although off to a bumpy start due to an attempt by his eldest son, Khusraw, to take the empire, the Mughal Empire that Jahangir came to rulefrom 1605 to 1627was one characterized by wealth and economic expansion. Internally, Jahangir developed agriculture through the introduction of sugarcane and cotton, which grew easily, and improved transportation so that farmers could bring their products to markets further afield.Externally, he continued to develop relations with Hindu leaders throughout modern India, as well as Europeans, which expanded trade opportunities for both imports and exports in the Mughal Empire. In this state of economic abundance, Jahangir was an avid commissioner of miniatures, especially those depicting elements of the natural world. His collections of botanical drawings and paintings were extensions of the interest in nature by the first Mughal emperor, Bbur. Further, he commissioned many garden projects, such as the Shalamar Bagh in modern Pakistan, which was described as Paradise on Earth by a famous Persian poet, Jami.Mirza Shahab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram, or Shah Jahan, was the son of Jahangir, who ruled the Mughal Dynasty from 1627 to 1658. Shah Jahan enlarged the military might of the Mughal Empire so much so that by 1648, it included over 911,400 soldiers. The Mughal Dynasty expanded under this force through various military campaigns that absorbed Persian territories in Central Asia, kicked the Portuguese out of Bengal, and forced the Ahmadnagar Sultanate into providing tribute. Under the expanding empire, however, Shah Jahan was able to maintain economic stability, which allowed him to commission a number of cultural and artistic achievements, most famously the Taj Mahal.The Taj Mahal and Other Architectural Feats of Shah JahanPhotograph of the Taj Mahal. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Taj Mahal was commissioned as a tomb and monument to Shah Jahans favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died unexpectedly during childbirth. It is theorized that because Mumtaz would spend a lot of her time near the Yamuna River in Agra, the Taj Mahal was constructed in its vicinity. Throughout the Taj Mahal, there are various examples of the inclusion of naturalistic elements such as leaves and other foliage that were carved into the walls of the monument. Shah Jahan not only commissioned the Taj Mahal, but the golden age of Mughal architecture also saw the commission and construction of the Red Fort Complex in the new capital of Shahjahanabad in present-day Delhi.Other architectural feats included the Jama Masjid, or the Friday Mosque, and the Khas Mahal, which was constructed for the two favorite daughters of Shah Jahan, Jahanara and Roshanara. Many of these monuments, buildings, and forts included naturalistic foliage and ornamentation that was appreciated by prior Mughal emperors.The Legacy Left by the Mughal EmperorsPhotograph of the Jama Masjid. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Mughal Empire ruled the regions of modern India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of Bangladesh for centuries. Through developments in social and political structures founded on religious tolerance and inclusion, military expansion, and patronage of arts and culture, Mughal emperors Bbur, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan created one of the wealthiest empires in the early modern period. Although the Mughal Empire ended after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, it continues to live on through the architecture, artifacts, paintings, and other works of art commissioned by its rulers.

In the Arthurian legends, King Arthur famously fought 12 battles against the Anglo-Saxons, culminating in the historically important Battle of Badon. Years later, he fought against his nephew, Mordred, at the tragic Battle of Camlann. However, there are some obscure references to another one of King Arthurs battles which has mostly been forgotten today. This battle is particularly notable because it actually appears in one of the very earliest sources that mentions Arthur. The conflict in question was the Battle of Llongborth, and like Camlann, this was remembered as a tragedy. What do we know about it?The Source for King Arthurs Battle of LlongborthThe opening lines of Englynion Gereint fab Erbin, the poem from the Red Book of Hergest that describes the death of Geraint at the Battle of Llongborth, Jesus College MS 111 folio 259v, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Library, OxfordThe earliest reference to the Battle of Llongborth comes from a Welsh poem usually known as Geraint son of Erbin. In actuality, the medieval sources give it two different titles. One is Gereint fil Erbin, while the other is Englynion Gereint fab Erbin. The two titles are given to two somewhat different versions of the same poem. The former is the title found in a manuscript called the Black Book of Carmarthen, while the latter is the title found in the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest. Despite the comparatively late date of these manuscripts, the original poem is believed to date back to approximately the year 900.The poem tells of a battle that occurred at a place called Llongborth. The principal focus of the poem is a king named Geraint son of Erbin, but King Arthur is presented as being present as the leader of the conflict. Not many details are given, but the general tone is that of a tragedy, with many said to have been slain at the battle.Did Geraint Die at the Battle of Llongborth?Englynion Gereint fab Erbin in the Red Book of Hergest, Jesus College MS 111 folio 259v, with the reference to Gereints death on the second line, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Library, OxfordGeraint, the subject of this poem, was the king of Dumnonia (essentially Devon and Cornwall) in the 6th century and appears in other medieval sources. The traditional interpretation of this poem is that it tells of the death of this king. One of the stanzas in the poem reads as follows:In Llongborth Geraint was slain,A brave warrior from the region of Dyfnaint,They were killing although they were killing them.Due to this stanza, the poem has essentially always been viewed as an elegy, or grave song, in honor of Geraint. However, this interpretation has come under fire in recent years. Some scholars have noted that the stanza in question speaks in the plural in the final line. To such scholars, this suggests that the stanza is actually talking about the death of Geraints men and not Geraint himself. This is seemingly supported by the reading in the Black Book of Carmarthens version, where the second line explicitly refers to warriors, plural. Furthermore, the Welsh text in the first line in that version is apparently corrupt and could be easily corrected to read was slain to Geraint rather than Geraint was slain.Red Book of Hergest, Jesus College MS 111 folio 259v, showing the reference to the death of Arthurs men (second line) followed by the reference to Arthur as the emperor and leader of battle (third line), c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Library, OxfordHowever, there is good reason to reject this newly suggested interpretation. For one thing, the switch between singular and plural is not really significant. We see this same phenomenon in the adjacent stanza, which refers to Arthur. The reference to Arthur is definitely to a single person, and it describes him as the conductor of the toil. Yet, the middle line randomly switches to the plural to mention his warriors, with no natural transition, just like in the stanza about Geraint. Therefore, the use of the plural in the final line of Geraints stanza, or even in both the second and third lines, is not significant. It does not mean that the first line is actually about them rather than Geraint.What about the proposed correction of the first line, based on the reading in the Black Book of Carmarthen? The Welsh text in that line is awkward and evidently slightly corrupt. However, the proposed correction (the removal of a single letter) could just as easily be applied to bring the reading in line with the text of the version in the White Book and the Red Book.Significantly, scholars have noted that the White/Red version of the poem generally seems to preserve something closer to the original than the Black version.The Death of Arthurs SonLlandrinio Church, the supposed resting place of Llacheu son of Arthur. Source: Bill Harrison via GeographOn the basis of the aforementioned evidence, it is very likely that Geraint was indeed remembered as having died at the Battle of Llongborth. However, he was not that battles only notable victim. Two 15th-century Welsh manuscripts include the claim that one of King Arthurs sons, named Llacheu, also died at this battle.This is very interesting because it helps us to understand better what the medieval Welsh believed about this battle. It was evidently held to have been a conflict that was not held very early in Arthurs career, otherwise he would not have had an adult son present at the battle. Furthermore, we can compare this with other statements about Llacheus death, his death being what he was most famous for in Welsh tradition. The earliest mention of Llacheus death is in the early Arthurian poem Pa Gur, generally dated to c. 900. The poem mentions it in association with the death of Cai, strongly suggesting that they died in the same conflict.Depiction of Sir Kay, the later version of the Welsh Cai, Howard Pyle, 1903. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThis is a very interesting piece of information, for it suggests that Cai, too, died at King Arthurs Battle of Llongborth. This is yet another detail that helps us to understand this legendary event better. In the early Welsh prose Arthurian tale Culhwch and Olwen, there is a reference to the fact that one of Arthurs allies ended up killing Cai. For this reason, Arthur in turn killed the traitor. Yet the description of Cais death in Pa Gur makes it clear that it occurred during a battle; evidently the Battle of Llongborth, based on the evidence from Llacheu. This means that the Battle of Llongborth was apparently a battle between Arthur and at least one of his former allies who had turned against him for some reason.From this information, we can perceive quite a lot about the Battle of Llongborth. It was apparently a battle that occurred relatively late in Arthurs career, caused the deaths of at least two of his allies and his son, and was fought against at least one former ally.Was the Battle of Llongborth Part of Arthurs Civil War Against Mordred?Image of Sir Mordred from The Book of Romance, Henry Justice Ford, 1902. Source: University of RochesterBased on this general profile of the Battle of Llongborth that we can build through a comparison of the sources, we can place it within the larger context of the Arthurian legend. The one attested conflict from the legends of King Arthur that appears to match this basic description is the civil war between Arthur and Mordred. Furthermore, the general tragic tone of the poem describing the Battle of Llongborth fits in well with how the Battle of Camlann was remembered in Welsh tradition.This is not to say that the Battle of Llongborth and the Battle of Camlann were the same event. However, according to another source for the Arthurian legend, Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, the conflict between Arthur and Mordred involved multiple battles. The Battle of Camlann was the final one, but the first was a battle on the shore as Arthur attempted to return to Britain after a long absence. Could this fit the Battle of Llongborth?Penbryn Beach, the site of modern-day Llamborth, probably the site of Llongborth. Source: Anthony Parkes via GeographAs it happens, the very name Llongborth indicates that it was a port. The poem also references horses being white with foam, providing further evidence that the conflict occurred along the shore. Notably, Geraints death is mentioned in another source, the Life of St Teilo. This places it at the end of a long period in which many Britons from South Wales had sojourned in Brittany. This arguably matches Geoffreys narrative, in which Arthurs first clash with Mordred occurs as Arthur and his men attempt to return to Britain after a long absence.Furthermore, the Life of St Teilo places the death of Geraint at or near Din Geraint, which is Cardigan. Just a few miles along the coast, there is a place called Llamborth, providing strong evidence for placing Llongborth at this location. Notably, some Welsh versions of Geoffreys account place this clash between Arthur and Mordred at a location called Aber Temys. In this context, this is likely a corruption of Aber Teifi, another medieval name for Cardigan. The letters m and f were frequently exchanged in medieval Welsh documents.What Do We Really Know About King Arthurs Battle of Llongborth?The Death of Arthur and Mordred, N. C. Wyeth, 1922. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn conclusion, what do we know about the Battle of Llongborth? It is a conflict mentioned in one of the earliest Arthurian sources, a poem dating to c. 900. It was a battle in which Arthur was the conductor of the toil. Although some scholars today argue that Geraint did not die at this battle, a close examination of the evidence suggests that Geraint did indeed die at Llongborth. On the basis of the Life of St Teilo, this would place Llongborth at or near Cardigan in Wales. The presence of the place name Llamborth strongly supports this conclusion. This is likewise supported by the nearby place named Beddgeraint, meaning Grave of Geraint.Arthurs son Llacheu was remembered as having died at this battle, which suggests that this was also the conflict in which Cai was killed. Based on a comparison of multiple sources, it appears that we can identify the Battle of Llongborth with another attested battle from Arthurs legendary career. It seems to have been the initial clash between Arthur and Mordred in the civil war that culminated in the Battle of Camlann.

The Black Death, was a destructive 14th century plague that affected people in Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It killed millions and caused great changes to societies. Reports suggest that the malady killed between 30 and 60 percent of Europes population, leading to a social collapse in many of the affected regions.Later in the 19th century, scientists found the cause of the plague. The bacterium was called Yersinia pestis. Before that, people gave the sickness dark names such as the Great Pestilence and the Great Mortality to describe the illness. The term Black Death came later and was a reference to the dark sores that appeared on victims bodies.How the Plague Reached EuropeElectron Microphotograph of Yersinia pestis, the bacteria thought to have caused the Justinianic Plague,. Source: Missouri University of Science and TechnologyThe sickness is thought to have begun on the dry plains of Central Asia a region situated close to modern Mongolia and northwest China. From there, the plague likely traveled west along the Silk Road. It is chronicled to have reached Europe in the early 1300s after spreading inside the Mongol Empire. At the time, the empire had a trade network that connected Asia to Europe. The scourge entered the Mediterranean region in 1347 and then to Europe aboard Genoese merchant ships. The ships had just escaped a siege at the port of Kaffa.The remains of a Genoese fortress in Feodosia. Source: WikipediaAccounts from the era describe a unique type of warfare. Mongol soldiers reportedly threw the bodies of their dead plague victims over the walls of Kaffa with an aim to infect the people inside. Sailors who fled on Genoese ships reportedly carried the sickness to European ports in places like Messina and Venice. From the ports, the disease spread with great speed and soon reached France, Spain, and the rest of the continent. At that time, Europe was ill-prepared to handle such a plague. Its cities were crowded and unsanitary, and its medical knowledge limited.Woodcut of dying plague patients, 1532. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy the early 1350s, tens of millions of people had died from the malady. The disease did not just move from person to person, it was also spread by fleas. The fleas that carried the plague apparently lived on black rats which was a common pest on ships and in homes. The mix of sea trade and poor hygiene allowed the infection to spread easily across regions.Different Variants of the Black PlaguePierart dou Tielt, manuscript illumination in the Tractatus quartus by Gilles li Muisi, Tournai, 1353. (MS 13076-13077, fol. 24v). Source: National Public RadioThe Black Death showed up in different forms. The most common was the bubonic type, a sickness of the lymph system. Victims would typically experience high fevers, chills, and weakness and have swollen, painful lymph nodes called buboes. In some cases, the disease came in the form of a septicemic plague. That version affected the blood and caused severe internal bleeding. The pneumonic form, the deadliest of all, infected the lungs and was usually spread through the air.Doctors at the time had no clear evidence about how disease spread. As such, theories ranged from poor air quality to the wrath of God. This was because illnesses were not usually based on medical science.Social Effects of the Black PlagueThe plague of Florence, 1348; an episode in the Decameron by Boccaccio, etching by L. Sabatelli the elder after G. Boccaccio, 1313-1375. Source: Welcome CollectionThe plague caused a lot of panic and a breakdown of social order. Whole towns were left empty and cities had to make use of mass graves due to the rapid pileup of bodies. A severe shortage of workers also led to a decline in farm produce. The great loss of life caused people to blame minority groups. Jewish communities, for example, were falsely accused of poisoning wells. The accusations led to massacres across Europe. The bacterium began to fade around 1351.However, it did not vanish completely. It found a new home in local rodent populations. The animal hosts ensured that the disease would return. Subsequently, the plague kept striking Europe in waves for centuries but with less severity compared to the first outbreak. The aftermath of the plague changed European society forever as labor became scarce. The scarcity enabled peasants to ask for higher pay and better working conditions. The changes caused the feudal system to weaken and gave rise to a stronger middle class.Causes of the Black PlagueDead rat due to plague, by Albert Lloyd Tarter, between 1940 and 1949. Source: Wellcome CollectionIn the 19th century, a scientist named Alexandre Yersin identified the Yersinia pestis bacterium during an outbreak in Hong Kong. He made the link between the plague, fleas, and rodents. His work put an end to the old unconfirmed theories about the disease. Modern genetic studies have since confirmed the bacteriums presence by analyzing the early graves of victims. Today, the Black Death is regarded as one of the deadliest diseases in human history. It not only caused death, but lasting changes in medicine, local economies, and social structures.