The Rare Times Rock + Metal Bands Have Swapped MusiciansNBC, Getty Images / Samir Hussein/WireImage, Getty ImagesIt's a pretty rare phenomenon, but there are a few times where rock and metal bands have actually swapped musicians.The most recent case where this happened was when it was announced that Josh Freese had returned to Nine Inch Nails, and coincidentally, longtime Nine Inch...

On April 26, 1478, during the Holy Easter Sunday Mass in the cathedral of Florence, a group of conspirators led by the Pazzi family murdered Giuliano de Medici and wounded his older brother Lorenzo. Known as the Pazzi Conspiracy, the assassination was the first step in a coup dtat to overthrow the Medici brothers as the unofficial rulers of the Florentine government. However, Jacopo Pazzi, the head of the Pazzi family, and his fellow conspirators, backed by Pope Sixtus IV and the King of Naples, failed to win the support of the population of Florence, who instead rallied to the defense of the Medicis.Two Households in Fair Florence: The Origins of the Pazzi ConspiracyRitratto di Cosimo I de Medici giovane by Ridolfo Ghirlandaio, 1531. Source: Catalogo generale dei Beni CulturaliThere was in Florence in those days a family, the Pazzi, who had grown most powerful, wrote Niccol Valori in his biography on Lorenzo de Medici. And as often happens among the great, they, wishing to alter the state of things, set themselves against the house and the family of the Medici, remarked the 15th-century author. They thought of nothing but how to diminish the authority and supremacy of Lorenzo, claimed Valori.The Medici family became the de facto ruler of Florence in the 1430s, when Cosimo de Medici successfully defeated his opponents. While the city nominally retained its republican liberties and constitutional regime, Cosimo assumed informal control of the Florentine government, creating a Consiglio dei Cento (Council of the Hundred) composed of his most loyal allies.The political prestige of the Medici family continued with Cosimos son, Piero, and was cemented by his grandson Lorenzo de Medici, later known as Il Magnifico (The Magnificent). The familys influence stemmed from their vast financial resources, including the powerful Medici bank, whose branches were active in all European markets. Cosimo increased his already considerable wealth by securing the management of the papal accounts. He also obtained control of the papacys alum mines in Tolfa.Faade of the Pazzi Chapel, Filippo Brunelleschi. Source: Web Gallery of ArtIn 1469, when 20-year-old Lorenzo de Medici succeeded his father as informal head of Florence, another family was vying for prominence and political power. Headed by Jacopo Pazzi, the rival dynasty enjoyed a considerable following among the Florentine elite.In a city where the most influential families expressed their civic pride and prominence through their patronage of the arts, the Pazzi Chapel in Santa Croce, an iconic example of early Renaissance architecture, embodied the Pazzis Florentine identity and public prestige. The rich coffins of the family bank funded the ambitious project designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, the same architect Cosimo de Medici entrusted with the ambitious construction of the dome of the citys cathedral.In 1460, the marriage of Bianca de Medici (Lorenzos sister) with Gugliemo Pazzi (Jacopos nephew) secured a kinship between the powerful families. The new union, however, did not end the rivalry between the Medicis and the Pazzis (ironically, the Italian word pazzi translates to madmen). Later, when the rift between the two dynasties had worsened, Lorenzo claimed that everything [the Pazzi] have achieved in this city they owe to our house, towards which they show themselves ungrateful.As Lorenzo de Medici consolidated his power, the Pazzi familys influence on the citys government began to wane. The feud between the two rival households worsened in 1471 when the Gonfalonier of Justice, backed by the Pazzi, called for an alliance with the king of Naples. The Medicis saw the proposal as criticism against their longstanding coalition with Milan, the axis of their foreign policy. Lorenzo responded by politically isolating Jacopo Pazzi.Political and Diplomatic BackgroundPortrait of Pope Sixtus IV by Titian, c. 1540. Source: Catalogo generale dei Beni CulturaliIn his Storia dItalia (History of Italy), 16th-century historian Francesco Guicciardini famously defined Lorenzo de Medici as the needle in the balance of power between the states of the Italian peninsula.Knowing that it would be very dangerous both for himself and for the Florentine republic if one of the great powers increased its strength, he sought by every means to make sure that Italian affairs were balanced, wrote Guicciardini.In a letter to Pier Filippo Pandolfini, Lorenzo emphasized his commitment to a diplomatic balance in the peninsula, remarking he lost a brother and almost lost his life protecting the triple alliance between Florence, Milan, and Venice.Created in 1474, the political coalition between three of the most influential Italian states replaced the Lega Italica (Italian League), a political and military pact signed by Florence, Milan, Venice, Naples, and the Papal States in 1454 when the Peace of Lodi ended a long period of conflicts.In the 1470s, however, the territorial ambitions of these neighboring states caused the crisis of the Italian League. The relations between the former allies worsened in 1474 when Pope Sixtus IV sent the papal troops, led by his nephew Giuliano della Rovere, to Citt di Castello, a small town in Umbria. The popes soldiers had already entered the cities of Forl and Spoleto.The courtyard of Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence. Source: Palazzo Medici RiccardiSixtus IVs territorial ambitions alarmed Lorenzo de Medici, who feared the establishment of a papal stronghold at the borders of the Republic of Florence. To prevent Giuliano della Rovere from asserting his uncles authority on Citt di Castello, Lorenzo opted to come to the Umbrian towns aid, calling for the other members of the Italian League to back his anti-papal military effort. However, due to his strained relationship with the Duke of Milan, Ferdinando of Aragona, the king of Naples, opted to side with Sixtus IV. The pope hoped that the dissolution of the league would isolate Florence.The head of the Medici family responded by promoting a triple alliance between Florence, Venice, and Milan. Formally announced in 1474, the new league divided the Italian peninsula into two opposing factions.And although war had not yet been ignited between them, later remarked Niccol Machiavelli, nonetheless every day gave them new causes for igniting one; and the pontiff especially strove to offend the state of Florence.In January 1475, Lorenzo de Medici celebrated his new diplomatic victory with an elaborate joust, where his brother Giuliano distinguished himself for his athleticism. The public event also had a clear political aim, reminding the Florentines of the Medicis wealth and prestige.The Plot Against the MedicisPortrait of Giuliano de Medici by workshop of Bronzino. Source: Catalogo generale dei Beni CulturaliBy the time Lorenzo de Medici and Sixtus IV clashed over Citt del Castello, their relationship had already turned sour. In 1473, their power struggle became evident when the Medici bank refused to loan the pope the sum he needed to buy the city of Imola from the Sforza family, the lords of Milan. In the end, Sixtus IV was able to make the purchase with the assistance of the Pazzi bank. Lorenzos lack of support for the popes ambitions had severe consequences for the Medicis, who lost the management of the papal accounts to the Pazzis.After the crisis over Imola, the Pazzi family became the center of an international coalition against Lorenzo de Medici. The conspirators hostility toward Lorenzo increased in 1475 when the Florentine government protested the appointment of Francesco Salviati, a nephew of Jacopo Pazzi, as archbishop of Pisa, claiming that Sixtus IV had chosen him without any previous consultation with Florence.In 1476, the murder of Count Galeazzo Maria Sforza in Milan weakened the geopolitical system of the Italian peninsula, strengthening the resolve of the Medicis enemies to overthrow their rule in Florence. The already tense situation worsened the following year. In March, Lorenzo lobbied for a new inheritance law (De testamentis) that favored male descendants over females. The decree was especially damaging for the Pazzi family as Beatrice Pazzi, wife of Giovanni Pazzi, was prevented from inheriting the considerable fortune of her father, Giovanni Borromeo.The Dukes of Urbino Federico da Montefeltro and Battista Sforza by Piero della Francesca, c. 1473-1475. Source: Le Gallerie degli Uffizi, FlorenceWhen the Florentine government passed the law, a plot to eliminate the Medici brothers was already well underway. According to Guicciardini and Machiavelli, the masterminds behind the Pazzi Conspiracy were Count Girolamo Riario, a nephew of Sixtus IV, and Francesco Pazzi, nephew of Jacopo Pazzi and manager of the family banks branch in Rome. Soon, other powerful opponents of the Medici regime joined Riario and Pazzi.In 1475, King Ferdinando of Naples openly expressed his support for the Medicis main Florentine rivals by appointing Antonio Pazzi archbishop of Sarno, a town in Campania. Meanwhile, the sovereign sent his loyal agents to Florence, instructing them to urge the population to rebel against the Medicean tyranny. Federico da Montefeltro, a mercenary general made Duke of Urbino by Sixtus IV, aided Ferdinandos anti-Medicean activities. In 1478, Montefeltro, then an active participant in the Pazzi Conspiracy, agreed to send six hundred of his men as military support for the coup.The conspirators also recruited Giovanni Battista, Count of Montesecco, an experienced military officer. After his arrest, the count gave a detailed account of the backstage machinations of the intrigue. In particular, Montesecco recalled a meeting with Sixtus IV, thus confirming the popes involvement in the Pazzi Conspiracy. He later made two secret trips to Florence to persuade Jacopo Pazzi to join the anti-Medicean plot.A Murder in the CathedralLa congiura dei Pazzi by Stefano Ussi, 1822. Source: TreccaniIn 1478, the conspirators were ready to set their plan into motion. Initially, they intended to kill Lorenzo de Medici during his visit to Rome during the Easter season. However, the young Medici unexpectedly canceled the trip. Then, on April 25, Lorenzo invited Francesco Salviati and 17-year-old Cardinal Raffaele Riario to his villa in Fiesole, hoping to repair his strained relations with the pope. Scholar Jacopo Bracciolini and Bernardo Bandini Baroncelli, the future assassin of Giuliano de Medici, were also present at the luncheon. During the festivities, Lorenzo invited his guests to attend the High Mass in honor of Cardinal Riario, which would take place the following day.The invitation led the Medicis enemies to postpone their planned coup, and besides, they doubted that Giuliano would be eating there, remarked Guicciardini. On April 26, Lorenzo entered the cathedral with Raffaele Riario. He was later joined by his younger brother. At an agreed-upon signal, the designated assassins assaulted the Medici brothers. Giuliano quickly fell under the blows of Bernardo Bandini Baroncelli and Francesco Pazzi. Baroncelli then tried to stab Lorenzo. He was saved by his friend Francesco Nori, who died protecting him. Amid the ensuing chaos, a wounded Lorenzo took refuge in a chapel.Meanwhile, Jacopo Pazzi and Francesco Salviati tried to set into motion the second part of the coup by taking control of the Palace of the Priors. At the head of a group of armed men, the Pazzi patriarch attempted to stir a public uprising against the Medicis. However, it soon became apparent that the population would not back the putsch. As the Pazzis supporters shouted the slogan People and Freedom, a growing crowd of Medicean partisans responded by chanting Palle! Palle! (Balls! Balls!), a reference to the six red globes adorning the Medici familys coat of arms.A Bloody ReprisalHanging of Bernardo Bandini Baroncelli by Leonardo da Vinci, 1479. Source: Web Gallery of ArtA few hours after the attack against the Medici brothers in the Duomo, a violent reprisal began. Amid the temporary dismantlement of the ordinary rule of law, the Medici familys supporters arrested and summarily executed the conspirators. Archbishop Salviati, Francesco Pazzi, and Jacopo Bracciolini were hung from a window of Palazzo Vecchio. The bloodshed continued for weeks as angry mobs targeted even those who were only remotely associated with the Pazzi Conspiracy.Jacopo Pazzi initially managed to flee the city. However, he was captured in the village of San Godenzo on April 29. After his execution, his body was put on display on the facade of Palazzo Vecchio. Captured on May 4, Count Montesecco was spared the humiliation of a public hanging. After giving his eyewitness account to the Florentine authorities, he was executed by beheading.Dome of the Cathedral of Florence, Filippo Brunelleschi. Source: Web Gallery of ArtBernardo Bandini Baroncelli, Giulianos killer, escaped to Constantinople, where he was arrested in 1479. Leonardo da Vinci, an eyewitness of his execution on December 29, reproduced the scene in a sketch. Badini Baroncelli and the other conspirators were also depicted by Sandro Botticelli in a series of paintings later displayed in the palace of the citys magistrate. Under Baroncellis portrait, an inscription, composed by Lorenzo de Medici himself, declared: I am Bernardo Badini, a new Judas / a Traitor and killer in a church was I / A rebel awaiting a more cruel death. Ten years after the Pazzi Conspiracy, Count Girolamo Riario, the only architect of the plot still living, was murdered in Forl, his body thrown out of a window of the government palace.Florence After the Pazzi ConspiracyMedal commemorating the death of Giuliano de Medici, Bertoldo di Giovanni. The words below Giulianos profile read Luctus Publicus (Public Mourning). Source: Catalogo generale dei Beni CulturaliThe failure of the Pazzi Conspiracy strengthened Lorenzo de Medicis prestige, cementing his role as de facto ruler of Florence. To fortify his political position, Lorenzo launched a propaganda campaign emphasizing his close relationship with the city. In his historical reconstruction of the event, written in the immediate aftermath of the plot, leading humanist Angelo Poliziano depicted his friend Lorenzo as the heroic savior of Florence.Conversely, Poliziano described the Pazzi family as social and political outcasts, exaggerating their moral flaws.He was a bloodthirsty person, wrote Poliziano about Francesco Pazzi, and the sort who, once he desired something in his heart, would go after it undeterred by considerations like honor, piety, fame, or reputation.While the early accounts of the coup centered on the role played by the Pazzis, there was no mention of the involvement of Sixtus IV and the king of Naples. Their names were also removed from public records. Only an anonymous poem commemorating the death of Giuliano de Medici alluded to the complicity of the two heads of state: There were some people of high status whose name I should not mention, but they were capable of such evil misdeeds that everyone can figure out who they actually are.Portrait of Lorenzo de Medici by Giorgio Vasari, c. 1533-1534. Source: Le Gallerie degli Uffizi, FlorenceThe Pazzi Conspiracy worsened relations between the city and Sixtus IV. Enraged by the public hanging of priests, the pope excommunicated Lorenzo de Medici and issued an interdiction against the city of Florence. When the Florentine government rejected his request to hand Lorenzo over to him, Sixtus IV, backed by Ferdinando of Aragona, sent his troops to Tuscany.The following conflict, known as the War of the Pazzi, lasted two years. As the military expenses threatened to empty the citys treasury, Lorenzo de Medici initiated peace negotiations with Ferdinando of Aragona in December 1479. The following year, Florence and Naples agreed to cease the hostilities. Sixtus IV ended the war against Lorenzo only in 1480 when the Ottomans conquest of Otranto shifted his attention to the newest threat.

Accusations of witchcraft werent exactly rare in the 15th century, but for the Woodville women, being clever, influential, andheaven forbidgood-looking, seemed to seal the deal. Jacquetta of Luxembourg and her daughter Elizabeth Woodville learned that a little charisma and a good marriage could easily turn into proof of sorcery. From mysterious family legends of descent from a water goddess to claims of love spells gone too right, these stories of accusation and their fallout remind us how uncomfortable medieval society was with powerful womenand how quick they were to slap an evil label on anything they couldnt control.Witchcraft in the 1400s: When Independence Looked Suspiciously Like SorceryThe Witches, by Hans Baldung (called Hans Baldung Grien), 1510. Source: The MET, New YorkBy the 1400s, a woman with opinions was about as welcome as a plague rat, especially if she held any influence or, heaven forbid, made decisions independently. If a royal woman wielded her instincts politically or even quietly defied the men around her, the accusation of witch lurked just around the corner.Jacquetta of Luxembourg and her daughter Elizabeth Woodville came to experience this firsthand. These women were a thorny pair for their time: Jacquetta, Duchess of Bedford, was from an old aristocratic family and Elizabeth, who later became queen of England, was uncommonly beautiful, strategically savvy, and stubbornly uninterested in staying in her lane. In the male-dominated world of politics and landholding, it is hardly a shock that whispers of witchcraft clung to them like ivy, planted by those who were jealous of their successes.The 15th century was a brutal era for women who dared to take possession of the direction of their own lives or, worse, the direction of their childrens lives and countries. The Church and the Crown had a vested interest in making sure that royal power stayed where it belonged: firmly in the hands of legitimate high-born men. If a woman seemed just a bit too intelligent or her luck too golden, the gossip began. Because the medieval mind loved a good scapegoat, anything off about a woman could be pinned on the use of witchery. In Jacquetta and Elizabeths case, their connection to the legend of Melusinea mythical water spirit who was half woman, half serpentbecame the fodder for these whispered accusations.Though Melusine had originally been a symbol of strength and a near-mythical right to rule in the Luxembourg bloodline, for their enemies, the tale became proof of their unnatural gifts.Witch Burning from Chroniques de France ou de St Denis, 14th century. Source: FlickrThough an interesting case because of their connection to each other and their unusual marriages, Jaquetta and Elizabeth werent rarities. Women across royal courts were often viewed with suspicion if they dared to step beyond their prescribed roles. For these women, stepping out of bounds could be a fatal mistake. Even the suggestion of supernatural influencetrue or notwas a tool to strip personal liberties and inheritances from women and, sometimes, their entire families.The newly minted noblewoman Joan of Arc met her death following accusations of witchcraft, nearly four decades prior to those that would fall on Jacquetta. Joan died for her defiance of what was expected of her as a woman. Independence, it seemed, was the most suspicious trait of all.For the Woodvilles and women like them, every public and private act of power had to be carefully calculated to avoid provoking suspicion. Marriages, alliances, and even the mere act of being able to bear many healthy children could brand them as a threat to good, innocent people. For Jacquetta and Elizabeth, navigating the often turning tides between warring factions was a matter of survival, where a single misstep could see their reputations burned at the stake, if not themselves.Accusations Against JacquettaJacquetta Sketch, by Peter Paul Rubens, early 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen Jacquetta of Luxembourg made the audacious decision to marry the dashing Richard Woodville for love (and without royal permission), it is safe to say she upset the social order. Having already been married to the Duke of Bedford, an English prince, and brother of King Henry V, Jacquettas match with a mere knight shocked everyone from the fashionable court to the commoners in the countryside.Jacquetta must have known she was inviting scrutiny from those who saw darkness where there was probably only love. After all, why else would a duchess marry so far beneath her and feel the need to hide it from her sovereign? In addition, Jacquetta did the unthinkable. She went from being allied with the Lancastrians to the embrace of their bitter enemies, the Yorks.Elizabeth Woodville, after 1500. Source: Art UKFast forward a few years, and Jacquettas high-profile family had only grown more influential. Her daughter Elizabeth married King Edward IV, catapulting the Woodville clan to the top of Englands power pyramid. In a kingdom where men with royal blood and battle scars still believed that kingship was theirs for the taking (and all were related and therefore all with claims to the crown), Jacquetta was dangerously visibleand so was her family. Enter the Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III, who saw Jacquetta as a convenient target to destabilize Edward IVs reign and discredit the Woodvilles entirely.Richard convinced an associate to claim that he had proof that Jaqcuetta had used magic to influence her daughters match with his brother. Gloucesters allies trotted out tales of Jacquettas supposed sorcery and presented a sensational piece of proofvoodoo dolls!Yes, they actually claimed theyd found small metal effigies of King Edward and others among her belongings, conveniently implying shed been dabbling in the dark arts to manipulate her familys rise. Was this evidence credible? Hardly. In fact, it appears that this evidence was less about magic and more about male ambitions, with a dash of creative storytelling.Edward IV, 1540. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRichard and his supporters were all too willing to paint Jacquetta as a witch, banking on medieval minds being quick to jump to superstition when powerful women made unpredictable choices. To them, Jacquettas choice of her own husband, romanticized beauty, and her familys ascent was dangerous enough to warrant drastic measures, like dragging her through a sham trial.Jacquettas trial for witchcraft unraveled as quickly as it had been spun together. It turns out that accusing one of Englands most prominent women of casting spells requires more than wild rumors and a handful of dollsespecially when that woman is the mother-in-law to the king himself. Edward IV wasnt about to stand by while his family was dragged through the mud, so he intervened to defend Jacquetta. Her innocence was ultimately confirmed, largely because her accusers couldnt produce a shred of credible evidence that withstood the scrutiny of even a medieval court.The whole case fell apart under closer inspection, and with Jacquetta acquitted, the so-called evidence was dismissed as nothing more than political theater. In clearing Jacquettas name, Edward IV didnt just protect his mother-in-lawhe sent a clear message that the Woodville family was not to be undermined so easily. As for Jacquetta, shed survived the trial with her reputationand her influenceintact, becoming one of the few women accused of witchcraft to walk away mostly unscathed.Jacquetta would go on to give her Woodville husband 14 children. She lived a very full life, though not a magical one, before dying at 56 years old.Accusations Against ElizabethPortrait of Elizabeth, by Cahira63. Source: DeviantartWhen Elizabeth Woodville met Edward IV, she was no passive damsel hoping for mercy: she was a widow with two young sons, navigating a world that often cast women like her aside. Her first husband, Sir John Grey, had fought for the Lancastrians and died in battle, leaving her sons stripped of their inheritance. Elizabeth, known for both her beauty and her keen understanding of court politics, recognized the unique opportunity posed by Edward, a newly crowned king with a reputation for charm and impulsiveness.According to contemporary accounts, Elizabeth set the stage for an encounter that would put her in Edwards path, positioning herself under an oak tree. In this way, she knew how to best show off the right mix of vulnerability and allure in order to capture the young kings attention. It worked. It worked better, perhaps, than Elizabeth could have foreseen.Edward, supposedly struck by her beauty and her boldness, found himself compelled to help hera desire that quickly transformed into a determination to make her his queen. He seemed to know just how jarring this romantic decision would be to his newfound reign. It didnt stop either him or her, though it did influence their decision to marry and consummate said marriage covertly. Their swift, secret marriage in 1464 upended expectations and angered many in the court who believed a kings marriage should be more politically advantageous, especially with the opportunity to strengthen ties to a foreign court.Elizabeths rapid and unpredicted ascent was often regarded with suspicion by her detractors, who whispered of sorcery and seduction. In truth, however, Elizabeths witchery lay not in spells but in her unyielding confidence, her calculated moves, and her ability to turn adversity into opportunitya combination as powerful, and as threatening to her enemies, as any supposed enchantment.Queen Elizabeth saying goodbye to her son Richard Duke of York, by Giovanni Battista Cipriani, 18th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTheir marriage didnt stop with love at first sight, either. It was remarkably fruitful, producing a healthy string of ten heirs in rapid succession, a fact that Elizabeths detractors didnt overlook. To her critics, it wasnt just love or biology at work hereit was spellwork to keep her alluring and fecund. The whispers turned into accusations that shed used dark arts to bewitch Edward and tie her bloodline to that of the ruling family.Royal marriages were supposed to be pragmatic political unions, not passionate affairs with enough romance to produce a brood of healthy babies. Elizabeth defied that narrative at every turn, and her independenceand sway over her besotted husbandunsettled those who preferred their queens quietly obedient.Unlike her mother Jacquetta, Elizabeth Woodville didnt face an official trial for witchcraft. Instead, she was surrounded by a simmering stew of gossip, suspicion, and ill-meaning whispers that stayed mostly in the realm of shadowy speculation. While Jacquetta was forced into a high-stakes defense of her reputation (complete with alleged voodoo dolls), Elizabeths so-called crimes didnt produce any physical evidence. Her enemies preferred the safer route of insinuation over outright accusations, especially given her influential position as a queen beloved of her husband.Elizabeth, in the eyes of those rumormongers, was absolutely a witch. After all, she was a woman who had dared to secure her own future and childrens fortuneswithout a male relative pulling the strings. That alone was enough to make her seem a little too fruitful, a little too flourishing, and a little too close to something otherworldly.Other High-Ranking Women Accused of WitcheryEmpress Meng. Source: Xiang Li ArtJacquetta and Elizabeth were hardly alone. Across cultures, empresses, duchesses, and wives of kings faced similar charges, and the pattern is unmistakable: a woman who dares to be more than subordinate suddenly has her virtueand magical prowesscalled into question. In fact, Jacquetta and Elizabeth were just two in a cross-cultural, location-defying line of women who would be accused of royal occultism.400 years before Jacquetta would face similar accusations, Empress Meng (1073-1131) from Chinas Song Dynasty would be banished from court over rumors of witchcraft. Meng was married to Emperor Zhezong, a match orchestrated by his powerful mother, Empress Dowager Gao. The emperor and Empress Meng reportedly never warmed to each other despite the Empress Dowagers encouragement. When Mengs young daughter contracted some disease, Meng was accused of sorcery, all for searching for a cure, and exiled to a Daoist nunnerya swift removal from influence under the guise of a witchs punishment.Mengs adoptive mother, who had tried to help her daughter and granddaughter, was executed for the crime of being an accessory to witchcraft, which was really just showing care and concern for a small child. Mengs own exile was essentially an elegant off-ramp to prevent her from interfering in court, much like Jacquettas reputation was smeared by accusations of sorcery to sideline her influence.Ironically, Mengs banishment saved her life when the Jurchen invaders captured most of the royal familya fortuitous twist that must have seemed a bit too lucky for her detractors. Empress Mengs fall and survival make her a kindred spirit to Jacquetta, showing how witchcraft accusations often served as an excision from circles of influence.Witches Sabbath, by Jacques de Gheyn II Netherlandish, late 16thearly 17th century. Source: The MET, New YorkBack in England, and closer to home for Jacquetta and Elizabeth, was Eleanor Cobham, Duchess of Gloucester, whose story echoes Elizabeth Woodvilles. Married to Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the childless kings only uncle, Eleanor found herself a heartbeat from the throne with her husband next in line. However, like many before, this was a contested succession. So, persistent rumors were invented that Eleanor was dabbling in astrology and consulting the notorious Witch of Eye.Much like accusations against Jacquetta, those enemies of hers were busy claiming she was crafting wax dolls and plotting the kings demise. Much like Elizabeth, whose match with Edward IV upset all hopes of a strategic royal marriage, Eleanors marriage posed a problem to those hungry for power. Much like Empress Meng, Eleanors co-conspirators met a swift and violent death, and she was banished to the Isle of Man. The moral: in a court where powerful men wanted you gone from the eyes of the people, accusations of witchcraft provided the perfect excuse.Across cultures and centuries, the message was the same: women who strayed beyond domestic-only roles could expect retribution in the form of whispered suspicions and witch hunts. It was never about magicit was about fear. Jacquetta, Elizabeth, and their fellow witches were simply too compelling, too influential, and too far from obedient for comfort.

Yuan Shikai is one of the most controversial figures in the history of modern China. Riding the coattails of the general and statesman Li Hongzhang, Yuan built an expansive patronage network that enabled him to control the Chinese military at the turn of the 20th century. His decision to cut a deal with nationalist revolutionaries in 1911 sounded the death knell for the Qing Empire, but he quickly rode roughshod over democratic norms to consolidate his power and even attempted to restore imperial government shortly before his death.The Hongxian EmperorYuan Shikai in military uniform, 1915. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn December 31, 1915, Yuan Shikai, the first president of the Republic of China, restored the monarchy and proclaimed the Hongxian (Grand Constitution) Era. He argued that he was acting according to the will of the people after receiving unanimous support from the 1,993 members of the National Representative Assembly he convened a few weeks earlier.As president, Yuan had aggressively centralized power, dissolving Congress in January 1914 and adopting a constitution in May that gave him control over the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Despite his dictatorial powers, Yuan was initially reluctant to restore the monarchy. He was convinced to do so primarily by his advisor Yang Du, who argued that monarchy was consistent with Chinese political traditions and that constitutional monarchy was essential for the modernization of China. The monarchists organized a petition campaign among different social groups to give the impression of widespread popular support.Yuans restoration of the empire was instead met with widespread condemnation. The Nationalist Party (KMT) claimed that Yuan had agreed to Japans humiliating Twenty-One Demands in exchange for Japanese diplomatic support for his imperial ambitions. Many of Yuans close associates in the army were adamantly opposed, as was Yuans erstwhile political ally Liang Qichao, who organized armed opposition to Yuan in Yunnan province in southwestern China. During the bloody armed struggle, many of Yuans generals urged him to renounce his imperial title. In order to maintain what remained of his authority, Yuan formally renounced the throne on March 23, 1916, after a reign of 83 days.Li Hongzhangs ProtgLi Hongzhang, photographed by Russell & Sons studio in London, 1896. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYuan Shikai was born on September 16, 1859 to a prominent family in Henan province. At the time, the Qing Empire in China was in internal turmoil, facing both the Nian and Taiping rebellions. Although his ancestors rose to high office through the Civil Service Examination and Yuans family hired distinguished scholars to tutor him, Yuan sat the exams in 1876 and 1879 and failed on both occasions.Nevertheless, Yuan demonstrated his abilities as a leader and administrator while organizing disaster relief efforts in his home region. After witnessing the suffering of the people, Yuan was determined to serve the country in the interests of the common people. After failing the examinations for a second time, Yuan suffered an emotional breakdown in 1881 and joined Wu Changqings army in Shandong province. Wus men had been at the core of Li Hongzhangs Huai Army, which had helped suppress the Taiping Rebellion two decades earlier.In August 1882, Yuan was one of 3,000 men who accompanied Wu to Korea, a longstanding tributary of China, where tensions between conservative and modernizing factions at court spilled into open warfare. As Wus men took control of the Korean government, Yuan played a key role in identifying a landing site for the army and was tasked with disciplining troops who attacked civilians and damaged their property. His exploits came to the attention of Li Hongzhang, who was effectively in charge of Qing foreign policy. At Lis recommendation, Yuan was promoted to official of the Fifth Rank.Portrait of Emperor Gojong of Korea, Chae Yong-sin, c. 1900. Source: National Museum of KoreaBenefiting from Li Hongzhangs patronage, Yuan supervised the modernization of the Korean Army and was appointed Chinas senior military and diplomatic representative in Korea in 1884, just three years after he joined the army as a common soldier. In December 1884, he suppressed a coup by pro-Japanese modernizers by marching his men into the palace and bringing King Gojong (emperor in 1897-1907) to safety. Yuans actions protected Chinese interests in Korea and enabled him to be a close confidant of the Korean monarch.Yuan returned to China in 1885, while China and Japan signed a treaty to withdraw troops from the peninsula. However, at the end of the year, he returned to Korea as Imperial Commissioner and remained in Seoul for the next nine years. At a time when the Korean court sought to exert its independence from China, Yuan worked to maintain the existing tributary relationship and to deter Gojong from moving closer to Japan or Russia. He continued to be closely associated with Li Hongzhang, who promoted him to Second Rank official in 1893.In 1894, Japanese troops entered Korea under the pretext of protecting its legation from a peasant rebellion. Contrary to Yuans expectations, the Japanese continued to send troops after the rebellion was suppressed. Yuans calls for the Japanese to withdraw went unheeded, and in July 1894, he was recalled to China. The Qing court officially declared war on Japan on August 1, marking the beginning of the First Sino-Japanese War. Chinese armies were routed not only in Korea but also in Manchuria. As a result, Li Hongzhangs policy, which Yuan diligently implemented in Korea, was in ruins.Military ReformerYuan Shikais New Army during a military exercise, 1900. Source: Library of CongressDefeat in the Sino-Japanese War was a national humiliation for China. Based on his observations while serving as a staff officer during the war, Yuan Shikai believed that the Chinese army required urgent modernization. On December 8, 1895, Emperor Guangxu appointed Yuan as commander of the New Army.From his base at Xiaozhan near Tianjin, Yuan pursued a military reform program inspired by the German military system. While Yuan hired German military instructors, he was keen to ensure they remained under his direction. These German officers helped to procure modern arms and equipment for Yuans small force. Yuan recognized that modern arms alone do not make a modern army and sent aspiring officers to study in Germany and Japan. He replaced old and unfit men with younger recruits, doubling the size of his command to 10,000 men by 1899.In addition to combat skills, Yuans new recruits were taught how to march and maneuver in formation. He frequently held mock battles with real weapons and ammunition to test his mens abilities. He introduced harsh punishments for misconduct but was prepared to be lenient to give his men a chance to improve.While Yuans training methods were praised by European observers, it is impossible to evaluate their effectiveness since the army was never tested in war. Nevertheless, Yuans leadership of his New Army had a profound impact on Chinese history, and several of his senior officers would become warlords in the power struggle that followed his death. Yuans close circle included four future presidents, including Yuan himself, and six prime ministers.Reform and ReactionTraditional portrait of the Guangxu Emperor. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Yuan was implementing his military reforms, he sympathized with the political reform movement led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. Pointing to Japan, he believed political modernization was the only way to secure Chinas interests from Western colonial powers. Like Kang and Liang, he felt the old Confucian examination system had outlived its usefulness, but he was wary of rapid reform through imperial decrees. He preferred a more gradual program that would see reforms implemented at a provincial level before being introduced nationwide.While Yuans political objectives were aligned with the reformers, his political temperament resembled that of the conservatives. Yuan found himself in a difficult position when the Guangxu Emperor empowered Kang and Liang by initiating what was subsequently known as the Hundred Days Reform in June 1898. A few days later, Yuan was promoted to ministerial rank, while court conservatives mobilized loyal troops in Beijing.According to the traditional account, when the reformer Tan Sitong presented Yuan with a secret edict from the emperor asking him to come to Beijing to eliminate the conservatives, Yuan betrayed the plot to Ronglu, the conservative war minister. Ronglu informed Empress Dowager Cixi, who seized power as regent and confined the emperor to house arrest.Yuans biographer, Patrick Fuliang Shan, rejects this narrative (Shan, 2018, pp. 82-84) and argues that while Yuan refused to act in June because he believed the edict was faked, by the time Yuan revealed the plot to Ronglu, Cixis coup of September 21 had already taken place. However, Yuans information may have encouraged the dowager to execute six leading reformers, including Tan Sitong.Imperial MinisterYuan Shikai in Qing Dynasty uniform, 1912. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile Cixi and the conservatives quickly separated Yuan from his New Army, he continued to serve in high positions. As governor of Shandong province between 1899 and 1901, Yuan effectively suppressed the Boxer Uprising while ensuring that the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance did not enter the province.After the armies of the Eight-Nation Alliance captured Beijing and forced Cixi to adopt a reformist policy, Yuan played a key role in the new government. In November 1901, he was appointed imperial minister and viceroy of Zhili (Hebei) province, succeeding his late mentor Li Hongzhang. In 1902, he established the first modern police force in Tianjin to take over from the foreign authorities, keeping order after the Boxer Rebellion.Yuan pursued wide-ranging reforms, petitioning for the abolition of the civil service examination system and establishing a three-tier Western-style educational system that prioritized mathematics, sciences, and foreign languages. He stimulated the economy by encouraging the adoption of new technologies and reducing taxes on merchants.Yuan was allowed to resume his military reform program. His New Army formed the core of the Beiyang Army, and by 1906, he was effectively commander-in-chief and minister of war. In September 1907, Yuan became foreign minister and attempted to defend Chinese interests while acknowledging the rights of foreign powers under the unequal treaties.On November 15, 1908, Empress Dowager Cixi died of illness at the age of 72. A day earlier, the Guangxu Emperor had died unexpectedly and was succeeded by three-year-old Puyi. The child emperors father, Prince Chun, was a reformer who blamed Yuan for betraying the Hundred Day reformers and dismissed him from office in January 1909.The Xinhai RevolutionSun Yat-Sen, founding leader of the Chinese Nationalist Party. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYuan languished in the political wilderness for almost three years at Zhangde (now Anyang) in northern Henan province but continued to maintain his relationships with officials. On October 10, nationalist revolutionaries launched the Wuchang Uprising in Hubei province. The Qing court believed that Yuan was the only person who could save the dynasty and ordered him to suppress the rebellion. After receiving assurances that he would be given sufficient military resources, Yuan left Zhangde on October 30.Yuan quickly moved to attack the revolutionaries in Wuhan, a conglomeration of the cities of Wuchang, Hanyang, and Hankou. His capture of Hankou on November 3 led to his appointment as premier, while Prince Chun was ousted from power. Although Yuan followed up by taking Hanyang at the end of the month, he was appalled by the loss of Chinese blood on both sides and suspended further attacks. Meanwhile, large parts of China had declared independence from the Qing government, and the Western powers increased their military presence in the empire.With the government almost bankrupt, Yuan decided to negotiate. Revolutionary leader Sun Yat-Sen offered Yuan the presidency if the latter abandoned the Qing. While Yuan favored a constitutional monarchy and was reluctant to concede to Suns terms, the latter set up a rival republican government in Nanjing in January 1912. Fearing a permanent split between North and South, Yuan raised the issue of abdication to Empress Dowager Longyu on January 16, and the Qing dynasty came to an end with the six-year-old Puyis abdication on February 12.The First Chinese PresidentYuan Shikai, President of the Republic of China, 1913. Source: Historical Photographs of China, University of BristolYuan was elected provisional president by the Nanjing Senate on February 14, 1912. While Yuan agreed to Suns condition for the capital to be in Nanjing, Beiyang Army soldiers rioted in cities across northern China. While Yuan was not personally involved, his close subordinate Cao Kun and his son Yuan Keding instigated the mutiny, giving Yuan an excuse to remain in Beijing, where he was sworn in on March 10.During his first year in office, Yuan enjoyed widespread support and was hailed as Chinas George Washington in both the Chinese and international press. He promoted freedom of religion and the equality of Chinas major ethnic groups, adopted the Gregorian Calendar, instituted new civil service exams, and supported the growth of industry. Yuan preferred a powerful presidency and sought to centralize power by dismantling the revolutionary army and separating military and civil power in the provinces.While Yuan refused to join any political party, he gradually aligned himself with Liang Qichaos Constitutionalists against Sun Yat-Sens Nationalists. After the first congressional elections were held in the winter of 1912-13, the Nationalists emerged with a large majority. On March 20, 1913, the Nationalist parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren was mortally wounded by an assassin in Shanghai. The Nationalists blamed Yuan and launched a Second Revolution in July. Yuan mobilized his army and suppressed the revolution by capturing Nanjing on September 1, and in October, he was formally elected president. This watershed moment strengthened Yuans authoritarian tendencies, which ultimately led to his ill-fated restoration of the imperial government.Yuan Shikais Death and LegacyA Five Yuan banknote depicting Yuan Shikai, 1914. Source: Wikimedia CommonsYuans decision to abandon his imperial ambitions in March 1916 did nothing to end the national crisis. He now faced calls to step down as president, and many southern provinces declared independence from his government. Faced with almost unanimous opposition, Yuans physical and mental health rapidly declined, and he died of uremia on June 6, 1916 at the age of 56.In his will, Yuan recommended Vice President Li Yuanhong as his successor. Since Li was acceptable to Yuans opponents, his appointment brought an end to the national crisis. However, political turmoil soon returned to China during the Warlord Era. During this period, several of Yuans former subordinates fought each other for control of the government in Beijing, while the Nationalists again set up a rival government in Nanjing.For much of the 20th century, Yuan Shikais dictatorial tendencies and his ill-advised decision to make himself emperor have made him a villain in China for betraying the 1911 revolution. He is also blamed for building a private army from which many power-hungry warlords emerged to devastate the country in the 1920s.At the turn of the 21st century, Yuan Shikais reputation has improved as scholars have reappraised his decision-making in the context of new evidence. They argue that while Yuan was a conservative who would have preferred to preserve the Qing Empire, he was an effective administrator in challenging circumstances and a reformer who took important steps to modernize China as an imperial minister and president.ReferencesShan, P.F. (2018). Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal (Contemporary Chinese Studies). UBC Press.

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