One Prizewinner went on to believe he was visited by a talking, glowing, motorcycling, raccoon.

The founding of the Second Bulgarian Empire in the late 12th century saw the restoration of Bulgarian independence from Byzantine rule. Under the leadership of effective rulers such as Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II, Bulgaria conquered most of southeastern Europe from the Byzantines. The Bulgarian state was soon destabilized by the Mongol invasions and found itself frequently at war with other European neighbors. After a resurgence in the mid-14th century, the empire was conquered by the Ottomans in 1396.Earlier Bulgarian StatesMap of the Bulgar migrations after the fall of Old Great Bulgaria. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Bulgars were a Turkic nomadic people who migrated west from Central Asia around the 5th century CE and came to dominate the steppe between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The first Bulgarian state, known as Old Great Bulgaria, was located north of the Black Sea and existed between 635 and 668 CE.After Old Great Bulgaria was conquered by the Khazar Empire, the Bulgars migrated in several directions and established new political entities. The most important of these states were Volga Bulgaria, located in what is now Russia at the junction of the Volga and Kama Rivers, and the First Bulgarian Empire in the northern Balkans around the Lower Danube. Over time, the Bulgars intermarried with the Slavs, resulting in a mixed Slavic-Turkic population.Following the introduction of Christianity in the 9th century by saints Cyril and Methodius, which led to the development of the Cyrillic script, the First Bulgarian Empire experienced a Golden Age at the beginning of the 10th century during the reign of Tsar Simeon I. Simeons capital of Veliki Preslav became one of the most important cities of southeastern Europe, and his domain stretched to the Adriatic coast, encompassing modern-day Serbia, North Macedonia, and Albania.The First Bulgarian Empire was fatally weakened by the invasion of Grand Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich of Kyivan Rus in 968-70. The Bulgarians sought aid from the Byzantine forces, who defeated Svyatoslav in 971. Before long, the Byzantine Empire sought to make Bulgaria its vassal, and after a protracted series of wars, Bulgaria was formally annexed by the Byzantines in 1018.The Rise of the Asen DynastyTsarevets Fortress, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenOver the next two centuries, the Bulgarians made several attempts to regain their independence by rebelling against the Byzantines. While these were unsuccessful, by the end of the 12th century, the Byzantines were facing a formidable challenge from the Seljuk Turks in Asia and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in Italy.In 1185, a pair of aristocratic brothers named Asen and Theodor were refused minor grants of land by Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos. Upon returning to their base at Tarnovo, they raised the flag of rebellion on October 26, 1185, the feast day of the popular warrior saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki. Theodor was proclaimed tsar and took the title Peter II, signaling continuity with the First Bulgarian Empire. While Tsar Peter claimed the throne due to seniority, his younger brother was a better military commander and was made co-ruler as Tsar Ivan Asen in 1187.After initial setbacks, the Bulgarian rebels gathered strength from Cuman allies and defeated the Byzantines in a series of battles. In spring 1187, Emperor Isaac personally led an army to besiege the Bulgarian fortress of Lovech but was defeated. Hostilities would resume two years later in 1189, but a Bulgarian victory at Tryavna in 1190 allowed the Bulgarians to consolidate their gains.Kaloyan: The Warrior KingEquestrian statue of Tsar Kaloyan, Varna, Bulgaria. Source: equestrianstatue.orgIn 1192, the realm was divided between the two brothers, with Asen based in Tarnovo and Peter in Preslav. This may have been the result of a short-lived disagreement between the brothers or a more effective means of administering the state. When Asen was assassinated in 1196, Peter led an army to Tarnovo and installed their younger brother Kaloyan as tsar. Kaloyan became the sole tsar the following year when Peter was also assassinated.During his decade on the throne, the 30-year-old Kaloyan proved to be one of the most effective rulers in Bulgarian history. In around 1200, he sought recognition of Bulgarian statehood from Byzantine emperor Alexius III Angelus but was refused. In 1204, the armies of the Fourth Crusade decided to sack Constantinople rather than go to the Holy Land. With the Roman Church in the ascendancy, Kaloyan negotiated with Pope Innocent III and received recognition as King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs.However, the Latin armies in the Balkans were soon raiding Bulgarian territories, while Greek rebels in Thrace appealed to Kaloyan for protection. The Bulgarian ruler answered their call and led his army to relieve the Siege of Adrianople (present-day Edirne, Turkey.) On April 14, 1205, Kaloyans Cuman light cavalry attacked the enemy camp while they were celebrating Easter. The Cumans then withdrew, leading the enraged Crusaders into an ambush by elite Bulgarian troops. The Latin knights were isolated, and Emperor Baldwin I was captured and taken to Tarnovo, where he died in captivity later that year.Ivan Asen II: Zenith of the EmpireThe Forty Martyrs Church built by Ivan Asen II in 1230 in Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2016. Source: Jimmy ChenFollowing victory at the Battle of Adrianople, Kaloyan continued to attack the Latins and their Greek supporters. His brutality alienated his Thracian allies, who turned against him. Kaloyan died in October 1207 under mysterious circumstances while leading the siege of Thessaloniki. He was succeeded by his nephew Boril, the son of an unnamed sister, who consolidated his claim to the throne by marrying Kaloyans widow.Borils claim to the throne was not recognized by his cousin Ivan Asen, the son and namesake of Asen I. Boril struggled to regain his Thracian territories and was compelled to make peace with the Latin Empire in 1213. However, not long after Emperor Henry died in 1216, Ivan Asen invaded Bulgaria and laid siege to Boril in Tarnovo. He captured the capital in 1218, took Boril captive, and became tsar in his place.The Second Bulgarian Empire reached its zenith during the reign of Ivan Asen II. His greatest achievement came in 1230, when he defeated Theodore Comnenus, Despot of Epirus, at the Battle of Klokotnitsa in southern Bulgaria. As a result, Macedonia, Thessaly, Thrace, and eastern Albania were annexed to Bulgaria. Theodores brother and successor, Michael, who retained control of central and northern Greece, effectively became a Bulgarian vassal.In 1235, Ivan Asen II cut his ties with the Pope and returned to Orthodox Christianity. During his reign, Tarnovo became a prominent political, cultural, and religious center and styled itself the Third Rome, challenging the weakened Constantinople.Fall of the AsensStatue of Tsar Ivaylo in Ivaylograd, Bulgaria. Source: Krasimir Kosev via Wikimedia CommonsLike his uncle Kaloyan, Ivan Asens success proved short-lived. The young sons who succeeded him were both murdered and by 1257, the male line of the Asen dynasty was extinguished. Over the following decades, the Bulgarian throne was contested by several claimants, some of whom married Asen princesses to strengthen their legitimacy.In the meantime, the Latin Empire collapsed, leaving behind rival Greek claimants for the Byzantine throne. In 1261, Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos captured Constantinople, leading to a revival of Byzantine fortunes. At this time, the nobleman Konstantin Tih consolidated his control in Bulgaria and formed an alliance with Michael VIII.Since the 1240s, Bulgaria had been subject to regular raids by Mongol-Tatars, which devastated the countryside. In 1277, an illiterate peasant named Ivaylo organized an army to resist the Mongol hordes and unexpectedly won several battles. Recognizing that Ivaylos successes undermined his own authority, Tsar Konstantin led an army against him and was killed in battle.In order to protect her position, Konstantins widow Maria Kantakouzena proposed marriage to Ivaylo, who was proclaimed tsar in 1278. Emperor Michael VIII, who was Marias uncle, sought to do away with Ivaylo and installed as tsar Ivan Asen III, a grandson of Ivan Asen II through the female line. Though Ivaylo defeated a Byzantine army, forcing the puppet tsar to flee, the Bulgarian elites decided to elect the aristocrat George Terter as tsar. Ivaylo was killed while seeking assistance from the Mongols.Revival and ResurgenceMap of the Second Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Theodore Svetoslav. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough Tsar George had some success in putting an end to the political disorder, his realm was much reduced, and he proved incapable of resisting further Mongol incursions. In 1292, he was overthrown by Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde, who placed a Bulgarian nobleman named Simlets on the throne. In 1299, Nogai Khans son Chaka invaded Bulgaria and briefly took the crown for himself. However, he was soon overthrown and killed by his erstwhile ally Theodore Svetoslav, son of George Terter I.Theodore Svetoslav restored Bulgarian independence and led a revival of Bulgarian fortunes by leading a successful campaign in 1303-04 to reconquer Thracian territories lost during Ivaylos revolt. He established his southeastern frontier at the Veleka River. In 1307, he formed an alliance with Byzantine emperor Michael IX Palaiologos and intervened in a Byzantine civil war that broke out in 1321.Theodore Svetoslav died in 1322 and was succeeded by his son George Terter II. The young tsar managed to conquer the city of Philippopolis (present-day Plovdiv) and its hinterland but died of natural causes the following year. He was succeeded by his cousin Michael Shishman, who took the title Michael Asen III to emphasize his descent from the Asen dynasty. The ambitious Tsar Michael was initially successful against the Byzantines but was killed in 1330 while waging war against Serbia. His son and successor, Ivan Stefan, was overthrown after a year.Ivan Alexander and his family in the Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander, 14th century. Source: British LibraryThe cousin of the deposed Ivan Stefan, Ivan Alexander, successfully consolidated his control of the empire during the 1330s. In 1344, he expanded his realm south of Plovdiv by taking advantage of another Byzantine civil war and thus controlled a state that roughly corresponds to the borders of modern-day Bulgaria.Ivan Alexanders reign ushered in a second Golden Age of Bulgarian art and culture, exemplified by the illustrations in the Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander, now held in the British Library. However, the tsars foreign policy would sow the seeds for Bulgarias destruction. In the northwest, he installed his son Ivan Sracimir as ruler of Vidin, but the latter was forced to acknowledge Hungarian overlordship. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian ruler had refused Byzantine appeals for aid to confront the Ottoman Turks, who conquered Adrianople in the 1360s and established a foothold on the Balkan peninsula.When Ivan Alexander died in 1371, he was succeeded in Tarnovo by his younger son Ivan Shishman. Ivan Sracimir continued to rule in Vidin and refused to acknowledge the authority of his half-brother in Tarnovo.Fall and ConquestA 15th-century French manuscript depicting the Battle of Nicopolis. Source: Bibliothque nationale de France, GallicaIn an attempt to head off an Ottoman invasion, Ivan Shishman submitted to the Ottomans in 1373. However, this failed to prevent Ottoman raids into Bulgarian territory, and in 1387, the Bulgarian tsar sought to reclaim his independence with support from Serb and Bosnian allies. The defeat of the Serb army at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 prompted Shishman to seek aid from Hungary.While Ivan Shishman was besieged at the fortress of Nicopolis (Nikopol) on the Danube in 1193, the Ottomans captured his capital of Tarnovo. With promises of Hungarian support, the Bulgarian ruler continued to hold out but was captured in 1395. He was either killed immediately or taken captive and died in prison.In 1396, King Sigismund of Hungary led a European coalition to besiege Nicopolis but was defeated decisively at the Battle of Nicopolis by the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I. Ivan Sracimir, Tsar of Vidin, fought alongside the Christian armies but was captured and poisoned the following year. The Ottomans duly incorporated the territories of Vidin into their expanding European domains.From his exile in Serbia, Sracimirs son Konstantin claimed the title of tsar of Bulgaria. Although he led a revolt against the Ottoman authorities between 1408 and 1413, his forces were eventually defeated, and the territories he had left were annexed by the Ottomans in 1422, shortly before his death. Bulgaria remained under Ottoman rule for four-and-a-half centuries until its independence was restored after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78.

Under Sultan Bayezid, The Thunderbolt, the Ottoman Empire had a series of stunning military victories in the Balkans and Western Asia. However, Bayezids ambitions placed him in the path of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, who captured the Sultan in battle. Known as the Ottoman Interregnum, this began a decade-long civil war and loss of territory that almost destroyed the Ottomans altogether.Ottomans: From Nomadic Clan to EmpireMap of the Turkic beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and a depiction of a Turkic bey (chieftain) in the Catalan Atlas of Abraham Cresques, 1375. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough the Ottomans are largely remembered as a mighty imperial dynasty, they came from humble beginnings. The founder of the empire, Osman I, was the son of Ertughrul, a nomadic chieftain or tribal warrior. Osman was one of many Turkic chieftains who were in a race to control Anatoliamodern-day Turkeyfollowing the breakdown of Seljuk rule in the country.Osmans son, Orhan, greatly expanded the small principality by conquering Byzantine towns and even marrying the Byzantine Princess, Theodora. This marriage cemented his alliance with the Byzantine ruler John VI Cantacuzenus. Orhan reigned for around 40 years and built important sedentary institutions, like mosques, caravanserais, and theological colleges (medreses).After Orhans death, his son Murat I became ruler and styled himself as a sultan. This signaled a shift toward a form of rulership more in line with sedentary Islamic societies, rather than nomadic Turkic ones. Murat wanted to expand Ottoman rule across all of Anatolia and the Balkans. He conquered Adrianople (Edirne), making it the new Ottoman capital city.Next, Murat turned to the Balkans. He captured land in Bulgaria and instituted the infamous devshirme policy which saw Christian boys in the Balkans taken as a levy and raised in the Ottoman court. Many of these boys became janissaries, the Sultans elite fighting corps which was instrumental to Ottoman military success. Murats end came in 1389 when he was assassinated during the Battle of Kosovo.Bayezids AmbitionsSultan Bayezid I, by Paolo Veronese, 16th century. Source: SammlungBayezid I, son of Murat, was commanding the left wing of the army when his father was killed. Bayezid immediately had his brother and rival Yakub elebi strangled, leaving no one to challenge his rulership. Bayezid was nicknamed the thunderbolt, a nod to the speed and strength with which he conquered territory.Bayezids ambitious nature, however, would land him in trouble with the other Turkic principalities that ruled Anatolia. The borders of his state were slowly encroaching on those of other principalities like the Aydinids. Keeping up with his reputation, he swiftly annexed the territories of these states with the support of his Christian vassals.Believing that the Turkic warriors under his command may be reluctant to fight their fellow Turks, Bayezid began to neglect the ghazis, the warriors who had once made up the entire armed forces. These Turkic fighters became increasingly alienated by Bayezid, whose policies they no longer agreed with.Bayezid, however, still had his Serbian and Byzantine vassals, and his janissaries, to fight if the ghazis refused. Pushing on, he annexed the principalities of Germiyan, Teke, and Hamid, taking key historical cities like Konya, the old capital of the Seljuks. However, Bayezids ceaseless attacks on these Muslim emirates were to come to an end with the involvement of Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror.Timur the Lame: The Scourge of GodContemporary miniature of Timur, ca. 1405-1406, in the Topkapi Palace Museum. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTimur, often called Tamerlane in the West, was born in modern-day Uzbekistan, as the son of a nobleman. He belonged to the Barlas tribe, a Turkified Mongol people. Timur had an exponential rise to power; from a nomadic raider, he became a military leader, and eventually a conqueror and emir (ruler).The conquerors reputation preceded him. Stories of his ruthlessness and savagery spread across Europe and Asia. Like the Mongolians under Chinggis Khan centuries earlier, Timur was merciless towards communities who resisted his rule. His campaigns in Iran reveal the extent to which Timur was ready to punish those who did not submit to him. When the people of Isfahan rebelled against his heavy taxes, he reportedly had over 100,000 people killed and had towers built out of their skulls.These were effective fear tactics that made Timurs conquests easier. In fact, those who submitted, like the people of Tabriz (Iran), were left in relative peace. Timur was involved in campaigns around Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, leaving Anatolia to its own devices. However, Bayezids conquest of the Turkic principalitiessome of which paid tribute to Timurwas unacceptable in Timurs eyes.Throughout the 1390s, Timur and Bayezid exchanged several letters to resolve this situation. These consisted of many insulting phrases, including Bayezid being called an ant by Timur, and Timur being called an old dog by Bayezid. By the beginning of the 15th century, both rulers began strategic preparations for war.Aftermath of the Battle of AnkaraBayezid and Despina in captivity, humiliated under the table and used as a footstool, from the Album Amicorum, 16th century. Source: SothebysUnder the pretext of restoring the Turkic principalities to their rightful owners, Timur set out for Anatolia in the year 1400. With an army of 140,000 troops, he faced Bayezid on the battlefield in 1402.Bayezids army began to unravel as the Turkic tribespeople deserted, choosing instead to fight for Timur, who they felt a kinship with as former steppe nomads. Bayezids Balkan vassals also prematurely retreated, further weakening his military power. The final straw was when Bayezid was captured by Timurs forces.Bayezid and his family, including his wife Despina and son Mustafa, were held captive by Timur until Bayezids suspicious death in 1403. Bayezids sons sprang into action because of Turkic succession rules which allowed any male member of the royal family to become Sultan. However, Timur recognized Mehmet as his fathers heir and placed him on the Ottoman throne.Yet, Bayezids other sons rejected Timurs decision. They refused to acknowledge Mehmets authority, and all claimed that they had a right to rule the small empire. It appeared that civil war was inevitable.Civil WarPrince Musa and his brother Suleyman facing each other, late 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMehmets older brother, Isa, established himself as ruler in Bursa. With the encouragement of his advisors, Mehmet left his province of Amasya and waged war on his elder brother. After losing a minor battle, Isa sought the help of the Byzantines and his brother Suleyman. In 1406, while bathing at a hamam (Turkish bath), Mehmets forces ambushed Isa and strangled him to death.Of the four brothers left alive, Mehmet had the strongest support. After the death of his grand vizier andarli Ali Pasa, Suleymans standing amongst many of the frontiersmen and tribal Turks began to weaken. Ever the warrior, Suleyman spent the next few years traveling across the empire, campaigning for the support of the Byzantines, vassal powers like Bulgaria, and the Turkmen tribes in the Balkans.Upon hearing of his brother Musas arrival in Edirne in the winter of 1411, Suleyman sought to make an escape. However, he was killed by villagers who believed that they would receive a reward from his rivals. To their surprise, Musa was incensed that royal blood had been spilled by commoners and ordered the demolition of their entire village!Mehmets TriumphA depiction of Sultan Mehmet from later centuries. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSince Prince Mustafa was still being held captive at the Timurid court, the only two contenders for the throne were now princes Mehmet and Musa. The brothers agreed to split the remaining Ottoman lands in half, with Mehmet ruling as Sultan in Anatolia and Musa, also a sultan, ruling over the European territories.Yet, this was not what Musa truly desired. In February 1411, Musa declared his independence by minting coins in his name. He also besieged Constantinople, just as his father Bayezid had done. The distressed Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaeologus begged Mehmet for protection against his brothers attacks. Mehmet dragged his troops to Constantinople, where they attackedalbeit unsuccessfullyMusas army.Mehmet needed further assistance and turned to Stefan Lazarevi, the ruler of Serbia and brother of Despina Hatun, Bayezid Is wife. On July 5, 1413, in modern-day Samokov, Bulgaria, the armies of Mehmet and Musa met. Despite his initial success, Musas armies lost footing when noblemen defected to Mehmets side.The Battle of amurlu ended with the victory of Mehmets troops and the death of Musa. Mehmet was now the uncontested Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. That was until his older brother Mustafa was released from captivity by Timurs son, Shahrukh. From 1415-1416, the interregnum was briefly restarted. Luckily for Mehmet, the Byzantine Emperor agreed to keep Mustafa captive on the island of Lesbos for the rest of Mehmets reign.Mehmets Reign and StrugglesMehmet I, seated, with courtiers. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMehmets reign was instrumental in bringing the Ottoman Empire back to life. Hailed as the second founder of the Ottoman state, Mehmet set up his capital in Edirne, a prominent city near Constantinople. He also made many territorial gains in the Balkans and Eastern Anatolia.Nonetheless, his reign wasnt without problems. Mustafa, his elder brother, briefly laid claim to power. In Rumeliathe empires European provincesa popular religious movement led by the Sufi mystic and revolutionary Sheikh Bedreddin had emerged. By 1416, this had turned into a full-blown rebellion against Mehmets reign.While Mehmet tried to restore the former territories of the empire, his viziers dealt with the uprisings inspired by this mystical sheikh. In 1420, Bedreddin, along with thousands of his followers, were slaughtered, ending the challenge to Mehmets authority.Mehmet died a year later, leaving the throne to his 16-year-old son Murat. The interregnum was officially over as the young sultan inherited a relatively unified empire of 870,000 square kilometers (335,908 square miles). Although he would soon face social and political troubles of his own, Murat owed the intellectual and artistic flourishing of his time to his fathers efforts for peace.

In no small part, horses have helped create and change human civilization. Although they are not as conspicuous and as commonplace as they used to be, many civilizations were built on foundations provided for by equine labor.From the plains of Eurasia, where they roamed free as wild animals, to the arenas, where their speed and prowess entertained the gambling masses, and to the battlefield, where their courage and bravery were the deciding factors between victory and defeat, horses have contributed immensely to shaping our world.The human relationship with horses and its impact is a fundamental story of human civilization that is worthy of immense respect.Horses and Humans: First ContactImage by mile Prisse dAvennes of an Egyptian chariot. Source: New York Public Library, enhanced by rawpixel.comFor hundreds of thousands of years, horses were seen as potential prey. When horses were first encountered on the grasslands of Eurasia, it likely did not come as much of a surprise to whichever species or subspecies of humans discovered them.In Africa, the Homo genus was well acquainted with zebras. Their Eurasian counterparts were not much different.With the advent of the Neolithic Revolution and the birth of agriculture, human needs and habits changed. Several thousand years after the rise of agriculture, humans living in Western Asia and Eastern Europe turned their attention to horses.It took ingenuity and a good deal of bravery to tame wild horses for the first time, but around 3500 BCE, horses became a common feature in human settlements. Although it is unknown whether horses were driven or ridden first, they were certainly used for transport, meat, and warfare.The impact this had on the course of human civilization was immense.Horses in Ancient TimesEtruscan bronze object depicting a Scythian mounted archer. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkPerhaps the oldest use for horses in warfare was for pulling chariots. The earliest evidence for this comes from around 2000 BCE from the Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture, which lived in parts of what is now Russia and Kazakhstan. These peoples were Indo-Iranians and likely used chariots in their conquests, moving into the Indus, where their culture spread into the Indian subcontinent. Their culture also spread westwards, and with it, their use of horses.During the second millennium BCE, chariots became a major factor in Hittite armies. With the invention of better wheels, axles, and the composite bow, the chariot became an incredibly effective weapon. Its use spread throughout bronze-age societies from the Middle East to China. Chariots were not only used as fast, mobile platforms for ranged combat but also to transport troops into battle quickly.A Scythian gold comb depicting a battle scene, ca. 430-390 BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy the first millennium BCE, horseback riding was evolving. The first riders sat far back on the horse, and the horses were guided by a man on the ground. The inventions of better saddles, reins, and stirrups revolutionized horseback riding. Cavalry units became more common in armies, from lightly armored, fast, and mobile units that could harry the enemy flanks to heavy cavalry that could punch holes in the enemy defenses. The Macedonians were likely the first to develop the tactic of massed cavalry charges.Meanwhile, the Persians made good use of heavy cavalry called cataphracts. These units were so successful that they were employed for hundreds of years, from ancient times to the High Middle Ages.The Romans were not known for their use of cavalry until the latter stages of the Roman Empire. For the most part, the Romans did not use stirrups, an important invention that allowed the rider to stand up while on horseback. Cavalry was not a major priority for the Romans, who based their tactics on legions. In later years, they augmented their armies with cavalry provided by auxiliaries.In sports, however, chariot racing was hugely popular in the Roman Empire, and vast amounts of money changed hands as people laid bets on their favorite charioteers and their teams of horses.Horse combat as depicted on the 1st to 4th century CE Orlat Plaques found in Uzbekistan in the 1980s. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile horses saw heavy use in warfare and transport, their use in agriculture was limited. For plowing the soil, oxen were the beasts of choice and would remain so for many hundreds of years. Though horses were more versatile and could help herd livestock, the problem lay in the construction of the yoke, which at that time put significant stress on the draught animals neck. Oxen could easily bear this stress, but it left horses struggling to breathe.An Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE) ceramic horse. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThis dynamic began to change in China in the 4th century CE. Yokes began to be designed to spread the stress across the chest rather than around the neck, and horses started being used in the fields. This agricultural development, however, was not picked up en masse in Europe for several centuries. Oxen were hardy and required much less maintenance than horses, so they survived as draught animals until the late 19th century. In many places around the world, oxen are still used to plow fields and are often preferred over horses due to their hardiness.Horses During the Middle AgesA painting depicting armor used for horses. Source: Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna / researchgateIn Europe, people started selectively breeding for traits that would benefit the European way of life and combat. Horses were bred to be large and strong. Unlike the horse archers that were used to whittle down enemy forces, European cavalry developed into a powerful shock tactic.Heavily armored and with lances, knights on horseback were designed to drive a wedge into enemy defenses and create breaches that could be exploited. The psychological impact that European cavalry had on enemy forces was also hugely significant. Spears developed into lances, and horses became powerful enough to carry riders wearing full plate, a development that even extended to horses, with plate armor specifically designed to protect horses as well. This armor was called barding.Two men on horseback, wearing lavish armor, facing each other at a jousting tournament by Th. and C. Senefelder, 1817, after H. stendorfer, 1541. Source: Wellcome CollectionNevertheless, the opportunity to use such tactics rarely presented itself, and horses were mostly used for logistical purposes both in and out of battle.However, the wide open plains to the east of Europe were perfect for all types of cavalry, and the Mongols made extensive use of both light and heavy cavalry in their conquests. Horses were vital to the Mongol way of life, and Mongol society was built around the relationship between people and horses.To counter the threat of Mongolian armies, the Chinese also placed an extremely high value on horses. During the Song (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, a vital tea-for-horses trading system was developed. Such was the importance of cavalry that government control of tea was central to the creation and maintenance of the empires cavalry.During the Middle Ages in Europe, jousting tournaments were also popular, and the horse was an integral part of the sport. Jousting fell out of fashion in the 17th century, and the purpose of cavalry on the battlefield changed as new technologies shaped how battles were fought.Horses also proved their worth outside of battle, especially as draft animals in farming communities and as carthorses.Mobility and SpeedScotland Forever! by Elizabeth Thompson, 1881. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe effectiveness of heavy cavalry charges with lances was countered during the late 15th and 16th centuries with the introduction of pikes. Formations of men wielding extremely long two-handed spears provided a devastating obstacle for horses, and cavalry forces were forced to adapt. The introduction of effective firearms also had a massive impact, making armor obsolete and providing new opportunities for mounted units.Sabers and pistols became more popular as the decades and centuries passed, although lancer units were still in use during the Napoleonic era. Cavalry units continued to thrive during the 19th century, but the advancement of technology and the progress of mechanization meant that the days of horses in combat were numbered.Horses Introduced to the AmericasComanches capturing wild horses with lassos by George Catlin, ca. 1834. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn North America, the human relationship with horses was significant. Introduced by Europeans at the end of the 15th century, horses and horseback riding were quickly adopted by Native Americans, who used the animals in hunting and warfare, especially on the Great Plains. The impact this had was so great that horses became integral to many tribal cultures, and the traditional ways of life changed. Horses came to represent wealth and prestige, but their pragmatic value could not be overstated.For the colonizers, the horse was just as important. The subjugation of Indigenous tribes and nations was sped up with the quick and mobile support that horses provided. Meanwhile, ranchers and herders would not have been able to control their cattle without the help of their equine assistants. In the cities, horses helped with transport, pulling carriages, and hauling goods.The dynamic wasnt always happy for horses, though, and the mistreatment of these animals led to the creation of the first American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) in 1866.Horses No Longer Present in Combat: The End of an EraBoddington Rodeo. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe long era of horses in combat roles came to an end with the technological innovations at the beginning of the 20th century. While horses still served in many places, helping the armed forces, cavalry became obsolete. Tanks and other fighting vehicles became the spiritual successor to the cavalry unitso much so that tank corps are referred to as armored cavalry.Meanwhile, firearms had become far too deadly for unarmored or lightly armored forces to move across open ground. Muskets gave way to rifles and then to machine guns that could saturate the air with death, making any attempt at a cavalry charge utterly futile.In the farming and transport industries, mechanization also took a front role, pushing the horse into obsolescence. Equestrian sports, however, continue to thrive into the present day. Sports such as dressage, eventing, endurance riding, rodeos, show jumping, and many others are still pursued with vigor in many parts of the world.Horses TodayHorse racing in Ireland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough horses are no longer vital to human civilization, they still play an important part in several industries, sports, and cultures around the world. While their duties have diminished greatly, horses have remained helpful to the human species in other roles.Mounted police are a common sight in some cities, even in a modern setting. Horses have also proved invaluable in search and rescue operations in difficult terrain. And just as they were employed over a hundred years ago, horses are still hard at work on cattle ranches.In less developed parts of the world, horses, donkeys, and mules are still used for farming, transport, and, in some places, as food.In the sporting world, horses are as popular as ever. The horse-racing industry is a global phenomenon, with its market value hitting almost 400 billion US dollars in 2022 and rapidly increasing.Horses still play a vital role in Mongolian culture. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOf course, civilizations existed without the horse, but those with the horse were able to make huge leaps forward, having an undeniable advantage in transport, agriculture, and warfare.In many ways, the history of the horse is also the history of human civilization. These loyal creatures and the duties they performed represent one of the keystones in the story of human civilization. Through thousands of years of history, horses have become one of humanitys most beloved animals.

From 1096 to about 1300 CE, during the Middle Ages in Europe, European monarchs and other royals sent armies to the Holy Land in the Middle East to attempt to secure the city of Jerusalem and surrounding territory for Christendom. These holy wars, fought between Christians and Muslims, had strong sociopolitical impacts on Europe, which was dominated by the Roman Catholic Church. Monarchs participated in the Crusades to win favor with the Pope, show their military might, and bestow rewards and punishments on political allies and rivals, respectively. How did two centuries of religious war in the Middle East affect the kingdoms of Europe?The Middle Ages in EuropeA painting of peasants farming in front of a French castle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Roman Empire collapsed shortly after 450 CE, approximately a century after dividing itself into a Western and Eastern half, plunging Western and Central Europe into a period known as the Dark Ages, or the early Middle Ages. There were several reasons for the Empires decline and collapse, ranging from political instability to foreign invasions to the rise of Christianity, which caused internal cultural and political turmoil. The collapse of the Roman Empire resulted in the rise of individual feudal kingdoms, where peasants labored for the benefit of a lord in exchange for protection.During the Middle Ages, kingdoms expanded in size and organization, with hierarchical ranks of lords and nobles. Loyal nobles would receive lands, including attached peasants or serfs (peasants who were indentured servants), from the king in exchange for assisting the king, especially in military endeavors, whenever called upon. By around 1000 CE, advancements in agriculture and a lack of large-scale warfare had allowed Europes population to grow considerably. A new socioeconomic class, merchants, began to emerge in growing towns to facilitate trade generated by excess production in individual feudal manors and kingdoms.The Power of the Roman Catholic Church in Medieval TimesThe Beauvais Cathedral in France was the tallest building in the world when it was consecrated during the Middle Ages. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe original Christian denomination was the Roman Catholic Church, which dominated Europe at the end of the Roman Empire. By 1000 CE, the Church influenced virtually all aspects of Medieval life. Monarchs allied themselves with the Church and used it as a tool of social control, with kings and queens declaring that their rule had been blessed by God and defying it would result in eternal consequences. The Church amassed considerable wealth by encouraging tithes of 10 percent of economic production, first from aristocrats and then from commoners.The Church, especially through its centralized leader, the Pope, could influence kingdoms directly by approving wars and invasions. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 was approved by the Pope upon William the Conquerors promise to fix the Anglo-Saxon Church in England, which had deviated somewhat from the customs of Rome. Additionally, the Pope could either bless kingdoms and their rulers, providing them tremendous legitimacy, or threaten to excommunicate kings who disobeyed the Church. Often, the Pope and his fellow clergy (religious professionals) mediated disputes among European nobles.The First Crusade (1096-1099)A drawing of Pope Urban II preaching the need for a crusade to liberate the Holy Land. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn November 26, 1095, Pope Urban II gave a famous sermon that prompted a crusade. He encouraged Christians to fight against the infidel and unify fellow Christians in the mission to reclaim the Holy Land, as well as absolve ones past sins by becoming soldiers of Christ. Quickly, European monarchs pledged forces to join what became the First Crusade, which embarked in August 1096. Unfortunately, many Christian soldiers engaged in mass violence against all non-Christians they encountered on the way to Jerusalem, including Jews in Europe.Although the Pope had anticipated a small force of knights, a social movement of up to 100,000 Europeans, mostly poor and relatively untrained, mobbed toward the Middle East. By June 1098, the crusaders had made it as far east as present-day Syria. By July 1099, they had captured Jerusalem after a five-week siege. Many crusaders quickly returned to Europe after securing the Holy Land, but some remained to establish new kingdoms along the Mediterranean coast. Christian cathedrals were built in the Middle East, establishing new cultural centers and traditions.The Second Crusade (1147-1148)A painting of the crusader siege of Damascus, Syria, in July 1148. Source: Wikimedia CommonsChristian control of the Holy Land was not to last. In 1144, the easternmost Latin (former Roman) state of Edessa was captured by a Turkish Muslim leader, Prince Imad al-Din Zengi. The fall of Edessa on Christmas Eve, part of a Crusader County from the First Crusade, prompted the Second Crusade. Poor treatment of local Muslims made it difficult for Christian lords to hold their territories, and help from Europe was desperately sought. Pope Eugenius III requested aid from King Louis VII of France in December 1145, and a Pope-allied clergyman sought the same from Emperor Conrad III of the German states.This crusade had multiple objectives: retake Edessa in the Middle East, push back the Muslims in Spain and Portugal (the Iberian Peninsula), and defeat pagan (non-Christian) forces along the Baltic Sea in eastern Europe. The mission to retake Iberia from the Muslims became known as the Reconquista, and commenced in 1147. In October of that year, English Christians captured Lisbon, and some continued on to the Middle East. There, the Germans under Otto of Freising, Conrads half-brother, were defeated by the Turks, and the survivors retreated home. The French fared somewhat better, with Louis VII arriving in Jerusalem in the spring of 1148, to be joined by some Germans under Conrad III. In July, the crusaders attacked Damascus, Syria, but retreated after a days combat.The Third Crusade (1189-1193)King Richard I, known as Richard the Lionheart, of England, by Merry-Joseph Blondel, 1841. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe failure of the Second Crusade was a humiliation for both Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, and both lost power and prestige as a result. In the Middle East, the Crusader Counties, also known as Crusader States, remained until 1187 due to political fragmentation among Muslim leaders. By 1187, however, Salah al-Din ibn Ayyub, known to Westerners as Saladin, had united the areas comprising modern-day Egypt, Iraq, and Syria as Sultan of Egypt. Saladin captured Jerusalem on July 4, 1187, prompting Pope Gregory III to issue a papal bull (formal announcement) to prompt a third crusade to retake the Holy City. The rulers of England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire (modern-day Germany) heeded the call to arms.The Third Crusade, which has been memorialized in popular films, saw King Richard I, also known as the Lionheart, of England battle Saladin over a two-year period. King Philip II of France returned home in 1191 after initial Christian victories. The crusaders were able to retake some Crusader States along the Mediterranean coast, but failed to capture Jerusalem. In 1192, Richard I established a truce with Saladin to allow Christian pilgrims access to the city. The Treaty of Jaffa (1192) granted Christians freedom of passage and the right to exercise commerce. While returning to England the following year, Richard I was captured in Austria after being betrayed by Philip II, sparking years of sporadic fighting between them.The Fourth Crusade (1201-1204)Pope Innocent III, by Joseph Kiselewski. Source: Architect of the CapitolSaladins continued control over Jerusalem angered many Christians, including Pope Innocent III. This latest appeal to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims was met with mostly a French and Italian response, and far fewer soldiers arrived to sail for the Middle East than was expected. Immediately, the French became embroiled in Italian politics and were manipulated by the leaders of Venice into attacking the Hungarian city of Zara in November 1202. Zara was a Papal State, governed by the Pope, and its being forced back under the control of the Venetians led to the Pope excommunicating all participating crusaders.Now, instead of liberating the Holy Land, the excommunicated crusaders headed to Constantinople, where an exiled Byzantine promised them riches if they placed him on the throne of the Byzantine Empire. The crusaders succeeded, but resorted to pillaging the city when their re-throned exile, Isaac II Angelos, was assassinated. Instead of reaching the Holy Land, the crusaders established new states in the former Byzantine Empire, mostly in Greece and western Turkey. This empire fell in 1261, when the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople. Ultimately, the Fourth Crusade was a total failure due to its never having liberated any land from the Muslims, and almost all fighting was done among Christians themselves.Later Crusades (1208-1300)A painting of King Louis IX of France. Source: The Morgan Library & MuseumCrusades continued after the total failure of the Fourth Crusade, but they were smaller and less formally organized. The Fifth Crusade, launched in 1217 by Germans and Italians, was on the verge of capturing an Egyptian coastal city, Damietta, when sultan al-Kamil offered to return Jerusalem to Christian control if the crusaders departed. The Popes emissary, Pelagius, refused to sign a treaty, and Damietta was captured in November 1219. Unfortunately for the crusaders, Pelagius next mission, to capture Cairo, failed disastrously, and the crusaders were forced to surrender Damietta and return home.The Sixth Crusade was launched by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who had been absent from the previous crusade and was thus disdained by the Pope. He married Isabella II in 1225, the daughter of the supposed King of Jerusalem, and thus had a political claim to the Holy City. Due to repeated delays in launching his crusade, Frederick II was excommunicated in 1227. Through shrewd negotiation and his knowledge of Arabic, Frederick II convinced Sultan al-Kamil to cede Jerusalem to him, allowing al-Kamil to focus on other threats. The Treaty of Jaffa (1229) granted Christians a ten-year guarantee for the Holy Land.In the late 1240s, the Seventh Crusade saw King Louis IX unsuccessfully attempt to capture Cairo, following the same route as the Fifth Crusade. Louis IX was captured and later released, launching the Eighth Crusade in 1269 before dying shortly after arriving in North Africa, collapsing the mission.The Crusades Effects on the Popes PowerKing Henry II of England kneeling to greet the papal legate, woodcut, 1563. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUntil the final stages of the Crusades, which were less organized, these military missions increased the power of the Pope. They gave the Pope, normally a religious figure, military power that could be wielded against perceived enemies of the Church, both outside of Europe and within. Nobles and commoners sought to win papal favor by volunteering for crusades, often doing so in exchange for blessings and promises of divine reward. Crusades were often advertised to prospective soldiers as penance for past sins. The ability of a pope to grant a plenary indulgence (removal of punishment for sin) to participants of a crusade was a major source of power and influence.During the Crusades, nobles and their soldiers worked on behalf of Christendom, which meant the Church and, ultimately, the Pope. This drastically increased the political power of the Pope, who functioned as a powerful arbiter in secular activities as well as religious affairs. Papal legates represented the Pope during the Crusades and in the Crusader States that were established, granting the Pope direct political influence over civil affairs. However, this increase in power declined late in the crusade era as the missions became unsuccessful, eroding the belief that crusaders were enjoying divine benevolence.The Crusades Effects on Monarchs PowersA map showing the greatest extent of the Crusader States circa 1135 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSimilar to popes, kings also enjoyed an increase in power and authority during the Crusades. As administrators of the Crusades, kings and nobles collected tithes, taxes, and volunteers for the holy missions, thereby strengthening their claim to divine right. When it came to fighting, kings gained power at the expense of lower-level nobles, who were sent to the Holy Land and could either die or be made to remain in the new Crusader States. As a result, nobles estates in Europe reverted to the king. The absence of nobles during the Crusades allowed kings to exercise more direct control.Crusades were helpful politically by giving kings an outlet for internal dissent and troublemakers, who could be sent to the Holy Land. Kings who participated themselves, such as Richard I of England, could also gain political power through public admiration for bravery. And sending young men to fight the Muslims in the Middle East benefited European monarchs by providing a common enemy, reducing the incentive to fight each other. Finally, the early Crusades provided some military victories and the establishment of Crusader States, which could be praised and publicized by monarchs to boost public morale.The Crusades and the City of JerusalemThe Cathedral of Saint Anne in Jerusalem, built by crusaders in the 1130s to replace a Byzantine church. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe primary goal of the Crusades, controlling the Holy City of Jerusalem, lasted only about 90 years, from 1098 to 1187. Unfortunately, the initial Crusader seizure of Jerusalem, which was surrendered peacefully by its Muslim rulers, resulted in mass violence against Muslims and Jews. Christians built various infrastructure, including many churches and forts. Islamic mosques were often transformed into Catholic churches. Existing Christian churches, such as Eastern Orthodox churches, were modified to incorporate Romanesque features.Jerusalem, home to many cultures and pilgrims from all three Abrahamic religions, also influenced crusaders who returned home to Europe. Artistic styles from the Byzantine Empire, which many Europeans encountered during the Crusades, were adopted by some European artists. There were countless cross-cultural exchanges due to the wide variety of cultures involved in the Crusades, ranging from Englishmen to Germans to Spanish Moors (Muslims) to Turks. By 1291, the Holy Land surrounding Jerusalem was firmly back in the hands of Muslims, but political reform by the late 1400s protected many Christian churches and synagogues from destruction.Today: The Legacy of the CrusadesThe Krak des Chevaliers in Syria a castle built during the 12th century by crusaders and later captured by Muslims in 1271. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBoth Western and Middle Eastern cultures use the Crusades to symbolize the Medieval era. The use of knights on horseback, lengthy journeys through perilous terrain, construction of castles and forts, and religious zeal are often romanticized by enthusiasts of the Middle Ages, with the Crusades perhaps being seen as the epitome of the era. Westerners have periodically sought to recreate elements of the Crusades in more recent eras, such as the colonial era (1798-1930s) in the Middle East, typically seeing Western intervention as both civilizing backward locals and protecting Christians. Not surprisingly, Middle Eastern cultures take a more negative view of the Crusades and consider them to epitomize foreign interference and oppression.In recent years, the term crusader mentality has gained popularity, referring to an individual or group that constantly seeks a fight over a perceived moral, ethical, or religious issue. Geopolitically, the Crusades saw a resurgence as a historical reference during the Global War on Terror when the United States and its allies intervened militarily in the Middle East. The location of the targeted terrorist groups, plus many politicians desire to portray the Global War on Terror as a battle of good versus evil, had many parallels to the Crusades of the Middle Ages. Controversially, many social and religious conservatives today may ignore the brutality of the Crusades toward civilians and prefer to see it as Christianizing and civilizing a hostile region.

During the 1920s, European fashion reflected the lure of exotic trends. From peasant shirts and embroidered dresses to jeweled kokoshnik tiaras, this era saw a strong Slavic influence on Western couture thanks to thousands of migrs who fled the Bolshevik Revolution. While Coco Chanel never visited Russia, she fused its folk motifs with her emergent Paris brand. As a rising star in the fashion industry, Chanels Slavic Period, sometimes also known as her Russian period, helped Chanel become a Jazz Age fashion trendsetter.A Fashion IconCoco Chanel, 1920. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGrowing up poor in a Catholic orphanage, Gabrielle Bonheur Coco Chanel decided to make a name for herself. Chanels rise to French fashion fame represents a rags-to-riches story.After a brief career as a cabaret singer, Chanel used her stitching skills and charm to navigate her way into the highest echelons of society. Smart, opportunistic, and practical, Chanel rose from obscurity to create one of the most influential fashion brands in history.Chanel is known for inventing iconic style landmarks, such as the little black dress and the Chanel No. 5 fragrance, at the height of the Flapper era.Known for her sleek and minimalist designs, Chanels fascination with Eastern European embroidery, beadwork, and folk patterns dominated her Slavic Period designs. She was not alone. A love for exoticism characterized the Roaring Twenties, a decade known for its decadence, consumerism, and zest for life.In 1920, Chanel found herself inspired to new creative heights by a passionate affair with a Romanov grand duke.A Romantic AffairChanel and the Grand Duke. Source: Classic Chicago MagazineIt all started with a whirlwind romance in the south of France.In the summer of 1920, Coco Chanel took a trip to Biarritz. The vacation took an unexpected turn when one of Chanels friends introduced her to Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich Romanov, the cousin of Tsar Nicholas II.Chanel had an ongoing liaison with composer Igor Stravinsky, while Dmitri was involved with Chanels friend, the French opera singer and actress Marthe Davelli. Their friendship did not stop Chanel from pursuing the grand duke. After meeting Coco, who was almost a decade older than him, Dmitri and Marthe parted ways. Marthe reportedly let Chanel take the Grand Duke because he was getting a little expensive for me (Rappaport, After the Romanovs, 2023, p. 116).Attracted to his tall, athletic figure, large, sad eyes, and famous Romanov charm, Coco fell for Dmitri fast. Despite poor health, he led a sporting life. According to The Flight of the Romanovs, Chanel later sighed: These grand dukes, they are all the same, an admirable face behind which there is nothing, green eyes, broad shoulders, fine hands . . . the most peaceful people, shyness itself . . . Tall, handsome, and superb these Russians are. And behind that is nothing: hollowness and vodka (Perry & Pleshakov, 2008, p. 263).Raised by English nurses in a massive St. Petersburg Palace, Dmitri had the aristocratic pedigree that Chanel craved. Before the Revolution, Dmitri had a reputation as one of the richest men in the Russian Empire. Grandson of Tsar Alexander II, the grand duke was also a co-conspirator, along with Prince Felix Yusupov, in Grigori Rasputins 1916 murder.Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, an accomplished horseman, came in ninth in dressage at the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, 1912. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the aftermath, Nicholas II banished Dmitri to the Persian Front. This act saved the grand dukes life. During the Bolshevik Revolution, most of Dmitris family members, including his father, were murdered.Dmitri managed to escape Russia with a cache of jewels.By the time he met Chanel, Dmitri had become almost penniless. In Paris, he lived in a modest apartment. He also took a job at a champagne firm. Still, the grand duke managed to hang on to fabulous Byzantine-style crosses (encrusted with emeralds, rubies, and precious stones), ropes of glimmering pearls, and thick gold necklaces. He showered his new love with these gifts. Chanel added them to her outfits, which she showcased in Vogue. The Slavic style of Dmitris jewelry filtered into her work.By spring 1921, they began a discreet affair, living quietly in Monte Carlo during the off-season. For the next year, the pair became inseparable.The 1903 ball at St. Petersburgs Winter Palace, considered the Russian Empires last spectacular costume ball, showcased traditional Russian historical clothing that later inspired Chanels designs. Source: Russian History Museum, New YorkIt was not a one-sided romance. Chanel outfitted Dmitri with the latest fine summer wardrobe and took him on vacation to the gorgeous beach villa she leased near Bordeaux. Dmitri often stayed at Chanels Bel Respiro villa in the Garches, western Paris fashionable suburbs. Coco affectionately referred to him as my prince.Dmitri introduced Chanel to his circle of Russian friends, including aristocrats and artisans who would play a key role in Chanels evolving brand. Through Dmitri, Chanel discovered a Russian Paris. She even hired a prince as her secretary.Dmitri also introduced Coco to his sister, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna. An entrepreneurial aristocrat, Maria had launched a small embroidery atelier in Paris. The two women, united by a mutual passion for Russian embroidery, soon forged a working relationship.While the affair only lasted a year, the two remained friends until Dmitris death in 1942. Even when the romance fizzled out, Chanels affair with the migr grand duke marked a lifelong obsession with his culture.Years later, Chanel pondered, Why does all I do become Byzantine? (Motto & Biagini, Fashion Through History, 2017, p. 292).Stitching for ChanelGrand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia poses for her portrait, c. 1908-1914. Source: Srmlands Museum, Nykping, Sweden; with Beaded waterfall gown from Chanels 1924 collection. Source: Classic Chicago MagazineThrough the grand dukes circle, Chanel recruited other Russian royalty to help her. Maria Pavlovna, who owned an embroidery atelier called Kitmir, grew up performing intricate needlework. She even studied embroidery at the Stockholm School of Art. In Paris, she opened Kitmir with her mother-in-law, Princess Sophia Putyatina, and the 50 Russian refugees she employed to run the shop. Without any startup capital, Maria sold the jewels she managed to smuggle out of Russia to keep Kitmir afloat. Maria knew they needed more clients to make her startup a success.One day, Maria visited Chanel at her fashion house. When she entered, she saw Chanel arguing with a craftswoman about the cost of embroidering a blouse. The woman demanded 600 francs for the job. Chanel tried to talk her down.Maria decided to create her own destiny.Suddenly, she spoke up. Mademoiselle Chanel, if I embroider this blouse for 150 francs cheaper, will you give me the order?Chanel agreed.Maria Pavlovna did not own an embroidery machine. She did not even know how to use one. But she was game to learn, and her skill and tenacity made the gamble pay off.My fingers were aching for the work, she recalled. I was anticipating the torment and joy of creativity.The collaboration took off. Over the next decade, Kitmir produced exquisite embroideries inspired by Russian folklore, opulent waterfall dresses with crystal and jet beads that shimmered like cascades of jewels, and chenille-trimmed hats, which became popular worldwide.1920s Chanel tunic embroidered by Kitmir. Source: Kerry Taylor/The Moscow TimesChanel appeared in Harpers Bazaar wearing her signature dark tunic and pleated skirt that showed off ropes of dazzling pearlsa gift from Dmitri. In Chanels showroom, models with Slavic cheekbones and good connections modeled her designs, bowing to kiss Grand Duke Dmitris hand and referring to him as Majesty.Slavic influence peeked through square necklines that mimicked the rubashka, a long, embroidered, and belted shirt worn by Russian peasants, a military-style tunic adorned with frogs, a Chanel peasant dress, and even a sailors jacket whose silhouette evoked the imperial Russian naval uniform. These embroidered garments became the stars of the show in Chanels spring 1922 collections.Soon, Chanels clients were asking for more.Coco Chanel, 1928. Source: WWD/Historia/Shutterstock; with House of Chanel beaded jet dress, by Edward Steichen, 1924. Source: VogueThe demand outgrew the supply. Handmade embroidery took too long and did not produce enough quantity.Before buying her first embroidery machine, Maria worked for a month in a Paris factory, learning how to use it. Next, she purchased a machine, installed it in her apartments front room, and taught herself and her staff to use it.This advance in technology helped Kitmir produce handmade-looking designs faster.A Chanel evening dress featuring Kitmir embroidery, c. 1922. Source: Dzen/Victoria & Albert Museum, London; with 1920 sketches for Vogue depicting Chanels embroidered style from her Russian Period. Source: Classic Chicago MagazineInevitably, fur also characterized Chanels Slavic Period. While Chanel had used fur trim before, she moved away from her previous fox, monkey, and leopard fur creations and toward more luxurious options.Siberian ermine, sable, and mink appeared in her 1923 and 1924 collections. Critics who had never seen fur combined with embroidery before caused a sensation in the fashion world. Photographer Baron Adolphe de Meyer was blown away when he saw a white embroidered Chanel coat trimmed with Russian sable for the first time.By 1926, Kitmir began to struggle. Prince Putyatin ran up debts. Maria Pavlovna ran out of the money saved from selling her mothers jewels. While her Chanel connection brought in more clients, it necessitated moving to a different part of the city as the business grew. The move also distanced Kitmir from Chanel. By 1928, the craze for the Russian look began to fade. Embroidery fell out of style.Chanels fascination with Russian themes did not end with Dmitri or Kitmir. She decorated her Rue Cambon apartment with pieces that evoked Russian influence, including a Robert Goossens sculpted bronze mirror offset by a double-headed imperial eagle and framed by sheaves of wheat.In 2018, the Chanel brand debuted a new jewelry collection titled Le Paris Russe de Chanel.A Scent of SnowIt took 80 ingredients to create Chanel No. 5s unique floral aldehyde scent. Source: Wikimedia Commons; with Ernest Beaux, the French-Russian perfumer behind the best-selling fragrance. Source: BBC/Creative CommonsChanel also joined forces with Tsar Nicholas IIs master perfumer. Together, they developed a new scent which transformed the fragrance landscape.Born in the Golden Age of Russian perfumery, Ernest Beaux inherited his fathers company, Alphonse Rallet & Co, the official scent purveyor for the Romanov court. By age 30, Beaux created signature scents such as Bouquet de Napoleon and Bouquet de Catherine to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty.During World War I, Beaux left to fight for France. When he returned, the Bolshevik Revolution had overturned the country. The new regime despised luxury as the epitome of bourgeois excesses. Beaux joined the Supreme Allied Command stationed in Arkhangelsk. In this harsh White Sea region, he worked in the intelligence department to fight the Bolsheviks. When the Allies withdrew and the country collapsed, the former perfumier fled for his life.His perilous journey took him across the Kola Peninsula through the snowy tundra close to the Arctic Circle. Beaux never forgot the crisp scent of the arctic desert landscape he survived. After his escape, Beaux wanted to capture the air of the midnight solstice and the scent of aldehydes trapped under snow.Tundra flowers on the Kola Peninsula. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Flickr/NinaraIn the summer of 1920, Chanel decided to launch a signature fragrance to define her brand. Her search took her to Cannes on the Cote dAzur. There, she met Franco-Russian expat Ernest Beaux, who had a reputation for experimenting with trailblazing scents.The aura of doomed royalty and cutting-edge perfumier practices entranced Chanel. At her request, Beaux prepared a sampling of almost a dozen new perfumes. After testing ten different vials, Chanel chose her favorite.Number five.Chanel No. 5 carried a mix of jasmine and florals paired with the stark aura of snow.In May 1921, Chanel launched the most celebrated scent in history. It dominated the fragrance world from the start, later counting Marilyn Monroe among its famous fans.The American actress famously told TIME Magazine in 1952 that she only wore a smile and a few drops of Chanel No. 5 to bed.Chanel No. 5 became an iconic scent and favorite of American film star Marilyn Monroe, pictured here in her iconic white ivory cocktail dress, 1954. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTogether, Beaux and Chanel dreamed up other perfumes, including N22 and Bois des les. In 1927, Chanel launched Beaux scent, Cuir de Russie. This Russian leather fragrance carried a waft of blond tobacco and horses, the dry, resinous, bitter smell of soldiers leather boots tanned with birch bark, and the smoky scent of Russian fields in autumn. This perfume filled the air at Chanels Rue Cambon boutique.Meanwhile, August Michal, a perfumier who worked with Beaux before the Revolution, became trapped in the USSR when Soviet authorities lost his passport. Michal went on to create rival perfumes for the new regime, including the signature Soviet scent, Red Moscow (Karl Schlgel, The Scent of Empires, 11, 35).Prince Felix Yusupov and Irina Yusupova, 1916. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe 1920s rage for Russian styles enabled Chanel and her aristocratic acquaintances to capitalize on these fashion trends and boost their brands.Overall, Russian migrs set up over 20 fashion houses in France, London, Italy, and the United States. Maria Pavlovna went on to create a Prince Igor perfume and fashion house called Shapka (Russian for hat) in London. Princess Alexandra Lobanova-Rostovskaya created Paul Caret, a Russian-style studio in the same city. On Paris Boulevard Malesherbes, Countess Orlova-Davydova launched a fashion house showcasing hand-knitting, printed wool, and silk fabrics.In 1924, Prince Felix Yusupov and his wife, Princess Irina Yusupova, founded the Russian fashion label Maison Irf. The Yusupovs title, Rasputin connection, and the downfall of the Romanovs dazzled wealthy Europeans and Americans.When the Yusupovs fled Russia, they brought valuable decorations, furniture, and art collections, including two Rembrandts and Marie Antoinettes earrings. In exile, they tried to recreate this lost luxury.In the winter of 1924, the Yusupovs and a group of friends opened a fashion atelier on Rue Obligado. They launched Irf without any advertising, thanks to a fashion show thrown at the Hotel Ritz on the Place Vendome.Advertisement for Irf, 1920s. Source: Irf; with Models showcasing Irf designs from the Journal of Paris Elegance and LArt et La Mode, 1928. Source: The Museum of Russia Abroad, MoscowThe Yusupovs discovered the fashion show at the last minute. Their staff worked late into the night to prepare. With the last designs still being stitched, Irf models, led by the statuesque Irina Yusupova, appeared at the show.Paris went wild with delight at Irfs refined designs. This success launched Irf into the ranks of the big Paris fashion houses.The aesthetic that dominated Chanels Slavic Period appeared here as well. Irfs 1925 collection included Russian peasant-style silk batik dresses. Even though the cuts and patterns bordered on old-fashioned for the Art Deco period, which fancied shorter skirts, Irinas long, drapey, and sophisticated styles gained popularity.Irf soon moved to Rue Duphot, at the heart of the Paris fashion center. In a pale gray boutique decorated by Felix, Irina created the impression of an imperial boudoir by draping elegant shawls over armchairs and adding crystal bottles as a final touch. Like Chanels look, Irinas slim, boyish figure, ephemeral silk dresses, and low Romanov voice fit the 1920s aesthetic.Clients flocked to Irf. They came for black tea served from a samovar and a glimpse of the Russian prince but stayed for the couture. Margaret Rockefeller, John D. Rockefellers granddaughter, even met her future husband at Irf. These subtle connections opened doors to influential clientele.Irina Yusupova pictured in the early 1920s. Source: The Museum of Russia Abroad, Moscow; with Felix Yusupov, pictured at the 1903 imperial ball. Source: DzenSoon, Irf opened three branches in Le Touquet, Berlin, and London.But trouble lay ahead. Felixs desire to capitalize on Rasputins sensational murder eventually turned public opinion against him. A financial crisis loomed. Rosamond Vanderbilt II, living in Paris, saved Irf with a timely check. But Felixs financial scandals and affairs took a toll on the boutiques reputation.By 1928, Irf dresses were still featured in Vogue Paris. But Irina felt depressed by the death of her grandmother, the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, that year. This time, an Egyptian millionaire came to the rescue, buying the Yusupovs house and giving them enough cash to keep Irf afloat.Even this financial boost wasnt enough to save Irf. As the Russian look declined, debts piled up, and scandals distanced American clients. The 1929 Wall Street crash triggered a Great Depression in Europe that hit Irf hard. By 1931, seven years after its dazzling launch, the Yusupovs shuttered Irf.Despite her fashion houses collapse, Irina envisioned a slimmer, elongated style that influenced feminine silhouettes for the next decade.Meanwhile, Chanel continued to work with fantasized Russian designs. She branched out, creating an ornate, Slavic-inspired jewelry line with imitation gems. Chanel also designed costumes for Sergei Diaghilevs Ballet Russes Le Train Bleu production in London.LegacyCoco Chanel pictured in her studio, by Roger Schall, 1937. Source: The Moscow Times; with Chanel No. 5: A scent for the ages. Source: PixabayA blend of sponsorship and opportunism offered impoverished aristocrats the chance to rebuild their lives in Paris during the Art Deco period.This partnership also enabled Chanel to ride new trends, tap into a universe of Slavic styles, create some of her most diverse work, and become a 12th-century fashion icon.Reading list:Motto, G., & Biagini, A. (2017). Fashion Through History: Costumes, Symbols, Communication. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Rappaport, H. (2023). After the Romanovs: Russian Exiles in Paris from the Belle Epoch Through Revolution and War. St. Martins Publishing Group.Perry, J.C., & Pleshakov, C.V. (2008). The Flight of the Romanovs: A Family Saga. Basic Books.Schlgel, K. (2021). The Scent of Empires: Chanel No. 5 and Red Moscow. Polity Press.

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