A supplied image obtained on July 30, 2025 that shows Gilmour Space Technologies' orbital rocket Eris during launch, in Bowen, Queensland. AAP Image/Supplied by Gilmour Space TechnologiesAn Australian-designed

As the United States expanded westwards, Native Americans were subjected to cultural genocide, foreign diseases, and territorial loss. Faced with destruction and herded onto reservations, many Native Americans resisted what was happening to them and decided to take action.In 1832, a Sauk leader named Black Hawk left the Iowa Indian Territory with a band of Native Americans from various tribes and crossed the Mississippi into the American territory of Illinois.Thus, a frontier war would precipitate, and thousands of lives would change.The Treaty of St. LouisPortrait of Thomas Jefferson by Mather Brown, 1786. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe precipitation for the Black Hawk War began with imperial ambitions on the North American continent. Eight hundred twenty-eight thousand eight hundred square miles of land that would encompass the Louisiana Purchase was ceded by France to Spain and then given back to France in 1800. With the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, the question of a French empire in North America arose.This alarmed the US president, Thomas Jefferson, who wanted continuous westward expansion for the United States to counter Napoleons imperial ambitions. Thus, he pushed for the Native Americans to cede land east of the Mississippi River.Six nations ceded land from 1801 to 1803, but the Sauk and Fox people refused to entertain negotiations. They already bore the scars of American aggression. American forces razed the Sauk capital of Saukenuk during the Revolutionary War as a response to some Sauk people helping the British. As a result, the Sauk were already on bad terms with the United States.In 1803, however, Napoleon was in financial difficulty, and his dream of establishing an empire in North America came to a halt when he sold the Louisiana Purchase land to the United States.Saukie and Fox Indians by Karl Bodmer. Source: SMU LibrariesIn 1804, a treaty was signed, which many Sauk did not consider valid. Sauk and Fox leaders led by Quashquame, a Sauk chief, signed the Treaty of St. Louis with the United States and agreed to cede vast tracts of lands for a relatively small price of $2,200 (around $55,000 today) in goods and an additional $1,000 (around $25,000 today) annual payment.The US Senate ratified the treaty in January 1805, but many Sauk and Fox refused to accept its validity. They claimed that those who had signed it on behalf of the Native Americans did not have the authority to do so because they didnt have permission from their respective tribal councils.It has been argued that there was confusion and anger surrounding the terms of the treaty. Given the small price the Americans paid, historian Robert Owens argues that the Native Americans had no intention of giving up the land, while Patrick Jung argues that the chiefs intended to cede a small amount of land but that the treaty caused confusion as to the amount of land that was to be ceded.A family of Sauk Americans, photographed by Frank Rinehart. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Sauks continued to live on the land that was ceded, and it has been argued that they did not realize that the land was now claimed by the United States. American colonists flooded into the new territory. Many paid little attention to which land belonged to whom and settled on land the Sauk and Fox considered their own. According to the treaty, the Native Americans were allowed to stay on the land until it had been purchased by private owners.To make matters worse, the Americans were also giving support to the Osage tribe, which was in a state of war with the Sauk and Fox. The Americans even intervened and stopped a Sauk and Fox war party from attacking their Osage neighbors.Burgeoning ResistancePortrait of Black Hawk by George Catlin, 1832. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn September 1804, an altercation turned violent, and three American settlers were killed by Sauk warriors who considered their victims to be trespassing. News of the incident spread like wildfire, and rumors began that the Sauk and Fox were forming an alliance with other tribes to eject the settlers on the frontier. Tensions continued for decades, and in 1828, the Americans began to press their claim further, prospecting for colonial settlement.The Sauks were split in terms of how to respect the treaty. Some thought the better option was simply to relocate, even if they disagreed with the treaty. They were of the mind that there was no way they could oppose the might of the United States.Others were not so accommodating and planned to defy the Americans and their treaty. Around 800 Sauk joined Black Hawk, a warrior who rose to be the leader of the faction wanting to resist American colonialism. His rival, Keokuk, led the majority of the Sauk away from confrontation.In the spring of 1831, Black Hawk returned to the village of Saukenuk and planted crops. Volunteer militia responded and advanced on the village, but when they arrived, they found fresh footprints and an abandoned town. The militia then trampled the crops, burnt the lodges, and desecrated the graves.The British BandThe course of the Black Hawk War of 1832. Source: Encyclopaedia BritannicaBlack Hawk and his band often flew a British flag to signal their defiance of the United States and, as such, became known as the British Band. In challenging the US treaty, the British Band started to attract like-minded individuals, notably from the Kickapoo, the Ho-Chunk, and the Potawatomi tribes.They were invited to stay at a settlement under the control of White Cloud of the Winnebago Ho-Chunks. Although Black Hawk did not want a war, he was prepared to defend his people for the sake of justice. He was also under the impression that if a war broke out, the British would use the situation to declare war on the United States. Thus, the British Band was in high spirits regarding their chances of victory.Meanwhile, the US Army and state militia were mobilizing and preparing for conflict as they assumed the British Band was hostile. The government responded to Illinois governor John Reynoldss call for assistance, and eventually, a third of the army was committed to resolving the conflict. Militia companies also contained Native American warriors from the Ho-Chunk, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Sioux peoples. Overall command was in the hands of Brigadier General Henry Atkinson.Fearing the inevitable conflict and realizing that British assistance would not be forthcoming, the Ho-Chunk refused to allow Black Hawks people to settle in their village. To make matters worse, the Potawatomi chiefs also denied aid.The Fighting BeginsBattle site marker for Stillmans Run. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn mid-May, the British Band became aware of a group of 200 to 300 militiamen nearby. Black Hawk sent emissaries to treat with the militia, but nobody in the militia spoke Sauk. Instead, the militiamen followed Black Hawks men and attacked their camp. The militia, however, were badly disorganized, and the attack was a disaster. Twelve militiamen were killed while the British Band lost three to five killed in what became known as the Battle of Stillmans Run.Black Hawks men had approached the militia under a flag of truce, and their trust had been betrayed. Black Hawk, who had not been fully committed to war until this point, now realized that further conflict was unavoidable.After the Battle of Stillmans Run, raids were sprung east of the Mississippi as Native Americans who may or may not have been connected with the British Band attacked settler villages and outposts.The war also provided a context for other grievances to be acted upon. A settler named William Davis had dammed a creek in the spring of 1832 and prevented fish from reaching a Potawatomi village. When the Potawatomi villagers protested, Davis ignored their pleas and assaulted a man who tried to dismantle the dam. Seeking revenge, on May 21, around fifty Potawatomis and three Sauks from the British Band raided Davis settlement, killing and mutilating fifteen people, including women and children. Two teenage girls were taken prisoner, but Ho-Chunk chief White Crow was able to negotiate their release.Apple River in Apple River Canyon State Park, Illinois. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMeanwhile, the warriors of the British Band maneuvered around the area east of the Mississippi, tying down their enemies and creating opportunities for the British Band noncombatants to escape westwards. American settlers also evacuated the area, fleeing to the safety of Chicago.The US forces were reorganized at this time, and in June 1832, the Army of the Frontier was created. It consisted of three brigades for almost 4,000 men, most of whom were mounted militia volunteers.By June, Black Hawks army was in desperate need of provisions. With 200 men, Black Hawk raided a stockade on the Apple River and then attempted to ambush US forces in the area. A series of skirmishes followed, and the British Band suffered at least nine killed.Out of combat, US forces were also suffering, and many soldiers succumbed to a cholera outbreak during June and July.Wisconsin Heights and Bad AxeBlack Hawk War 1832 by Sam Larson. Source: projectwisconsin.comAfter a clash at Pecatonica on June 16, 1832 between US forces and Kickapoo, loosely affiliated with the British Band, the US militia was able to pick up Black Hawks trail and pursue the British Band up Rock River.Black Hawks forces, now starving, were preparing to escape across the Wisconsin River when around 600 to 750 troops under the command of Colonel Henry Dodge and militia leader James D. Henry arrived with the intent to force battle.The Battle of Wisconsin Heights was a rearguard action for Black Hawks men. The militia had the high ground, while the British Band struck from the ravines below in an attempt to buy time for the rest of the party to cross the river.Sauk and Foxs dead were counted at 70, whereas the militia lost only one dead and seven wounded.The Battle of Bad Axe from Das illustrirte Mississippithal by Henry Lewis, published by Arnz & Company, Dsseldorf. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe final action of the Black Hawk War came two weeks later. On August 1, Black Hawks band of around 500 people, including women and children, reached the east bank of the Mississippi with the intention to cross over to safety. Their path was blocked by a steamboat, Warrior, bearing cannons.Black Hawk attempted to surrender, but his overtures went unheeded, and the boat opened fire on the Sauk and Fox, who were unprepared for such an engagement. After a two-hour battle, over twenty Native Americans had been killed before the steamboat ran out of supplies and continued downriver.By this point, Black Hawk was convinced that it was better to flee northwards than across the river, but the main body of his band disagreed and made further attempts to cross the Mississippi. Nevertheless, Black Hawk took around three dozen warriors northwards.As dawn broke the next day, the US forces broke camp and searched for their quarry. They found the rearguard of Black Hawks forces and engaged them while the main body of Black Hawks band tried to cross the river. Black Hawk tried to lure the US forces away from the main body and was initially successful.US militia, however, discovered the trail that led to the main body. Scouts tried to slow the advance of the US troops, but the gunboat returned and opened fire. The next eight hours were a massacre as US troops butchered their enemies. Men, women, and children were shot and scalped.Virtually the entirety of what was left of the British Band was killed. Black Hawk fled to the northeast but surrendered later that month.AftermathStatue of Black Hawk in Black Hawk State Historic Site, Rock Island, Illinois. Source: Terry Herbig / Dispatch-Argus / Rockford Register StarBlack Hawk was taken prisoner and sent to meet with President Andrew Jackson, after which he, along with other prominent figures in the war, were sent on a tour of the United States and drew large crowds wherever they went. Some crowds cheered while others jeered and burnt effigies of the prisoners.Eventually, Black Hawk was released, and he lived the rest of his days with the Sauk by the Iowa River.The Sauk and Fox, as well as the Ho-Chunk who had aided Black Hawk, were subjected to harsh treaties and forced into being dependent on the United States.Atkinson was subject to harsh criticism for mishandling the conflict with later President Zachary Taylor, who had served under him, commenting that the entire issue could have been resolved with all the Native Americans being relocated and without a shot being fired.Tobacco package labeling depicting Native American leader Black Hawk. Source: Library of CongressThe Black Hawk War was one of many conflicts that characterized the westward expansion of the United States. Precipitated by colonial endeavors and an inability to co-exist, the Black Hawk War serves as a reminder of the murderous policies of US expansion, as well as a rallying cry and a point of remembrance for Native Americans and those who wish to understand the devastating effect the United States had on the Indigenous peoples of North America.

Upon converting to Christianity in the 4th century, Ethiopias rulers took their new religion and invested themselves with an entirely new national mythos. Dynasties traced their roots back as far as possible (and even beyond) in order to solidify their legitimacy. And where better to start than with the central text of Christianity, the Bible?From the Kingdom of Aksum to Ethiopias final emperor, Haile Selassie, successive dynasties emphasized their Biblical ancestrysometimes literally, others more symbolically. King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba were their progenitors, and their authority was blessed by God himself.King Solomon: Setting the SceneKing David, by Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, 1651. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Bible features many kings as central figures. Some are benevolent, like King David of Israel, and receive Gods blessing. Others, like Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon or the Book of Exoduss Egyptian Pharaoh, are evil. King Solomon is always depicted as a shining example of a ruler.King Solomon, the son of King David, inherited the Israelite throne from his father. The Bible implies a power struggle at that time between Solomon and his brother, Adonijah. Solomon ultimately won the struggle but pardoned Adonijah. However, when Adonijah asked the new king if he could marry Abishag, his fathers young caregiver, Solomon reneged and sentenced his treacherous brother to death (1 Kings 2:20-25).The Judgment of Solomon, by Pieter Paul Reubens, c. 1617. Source: Statens Museum for Kunst, National Gallery of DenmarkKing Solomons reign was a prosperous one. He was righteous and faithful to God, and God blessed him in return.God once asked Solomon what he desired most. The new king answered, Give me wisdom and knowledge, that I may lead this people, for who is able to govern this great people of yours? (2 Chronicles 1:10). God was impressed by this request and threw in honor and wealth for good measure.King Solomon was renowned from this point onward for his great, God-given wisdom. This is where our story goes south (literally). Word of Solomons wisdom came to reach another ruler: the Queen of Sheba. The queen made it her mission to witness Solomons knowledge for herself.The Queen of Shebas VisitThe Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon, by Edward John Poynter, 1890. Source: Art Gallery of New South WalesThe Queen of Sheba is an intriguing figure. In the entire Bible, she only appears twice, and these appearances are retellings of each other. Still, her episode will have enormous significance for our story ahead.Having heard of King Solomons unmatched wisdom, the Queen of Sheba traveled north to Jerusalem with a grand retinue. She grilled Solomon with a series of questions and the king provided cogent answers. The Queen of Sheba was amazed, both by the depth of her hosts knowledge and the vast wealth of his city. Praise be to the Lord your God, she exclaimed, who has delighted in you and placed you on the throne of Israel (1 Kings 10:9).The two rulers exchanged gifts: King Solomon gave the Queen of Sheba all she desired and asked for (2 Chronicles 9:12). Then the queen left Jerusalem and returned home. This is where the story of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba ends.Or is it? Before we explore the story any further, lets take a detour into the history of Ethiopia. After all, that is where our story culminates.The Birth of Christianity in EthiopiaGold coins depicting King Kaleb I of Aksum, early 6th century. Source: The British MuseumBy the 4th century CE, Christians had likely established a small presence in the Ethiopian highlands. At the time, this region was controlled by the wealthy Kingdom of Aksum. One Aksumite king, Ezana, would be regarded as the father of Ethiopian Christianity. It was under his rule that Ethiopia became the first Christian country in Africa, and the second in the world, after Armenia.Aksum endured for 600 years. Their kings made conquests on both sides of the Red Sea and Aksum was known across the region as a trading center. Coins from the time period bear the Christian cross. After Aksum faded away, its successors, the Zagwe Dynasty, similarly emphasized a long Biblical history. Unfortunately, we dont know much about the Zagwe Dynasty. If the Zagwe kings kept records, it is possible that they were destroyed over the ensuing centuries. Their conquerors, the so-called House of Solomon, are at the center of our story.The Solomonic Dynastys Founding MythYekuno Amlak, 17th century portrait. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1270, a nobleman named Yekuno Amlak led an army to overthrow the Zagwe king. His campaign was successful and it inaugurated the Ethiopian Empire. The dynasty he founded, known to modern historians as the House of Solomon, supposedly ruled Ethiopia for the next 700 years.How did Yekuno Amlaks dynasty claim descent from King Solomon? One primary source, the Kebra Nagast, goes into detail about the new imperial familys pedigree. It interprets the story of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba to suggest something entirely newthat the queen and Solomon had a child together.King Solomon Receiving the Queen of Sheba, by Frans Francken II, 1620-1629. Source: The Walters Art MuseumThe Old Testament does not describe the Queen of Sheba in detail. She isnt named, nor does the Bible say where Sheba was located. Some scholars have identified Sheba with Saba (in modern Yemen), but no consensus has been reached.Ethiopian tradition fills in these gaps: the Queen of Sheba is named Makeda, and her kingdom was in Ethiopia itself. The verse from 2 Chronicles regarding how King Solomon gave the Queen of Sheba all she desired and asked for takes on a new meaning as well. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church interprets this verse sexually; not only did Solomon give the queen treasures, but they also produced a son, named Menelik.According to the Kebra Nagast, Menelik would become Ethiopias first king. The legend even states that he went to visit his father as a young adult. Someone in his retinue stole the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem and brought it back to Ethiopia. The relocation of the Ark illustrates the Ethiopian view that Gods chosen land had moved from ancient Israel to Ethiopia.How Factual Is the Solomonic Legend?Image of an Ethiopian Icon showing St. George, possibly early 20th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsJust how much of the Kebra Nagast is factual? To modern academics, most of the details are not possible to verify. The Kebra Nagast was compiled in the early 14th century but may have had roots in older sources. No one has positively identified Menelik, the supposed son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. So at least a significant chunk of the Kebra Nagast seems to be legend.Many Ethiopians believe that the Solomonic narrative is trueespecially the story of the Ark of the Covenant. Today, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church still contends that the major cathedral in the town of Aksum houses the Ark. All other Ethiopian Orthodox churches house a replica of the Ark, known as a tabot. The Church hierarchy has not allowed outside observers in to verify their claim, but the story remains a powerful one.Did the Solomonic Legend Change Over Time?Portrait of Emperor Lebna Dengel (Dawit II) of Ethiopia, by Cristofano dellAltissimo, c. 1552-1568. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAccording to the traditional narrative, the House of Solomon ruled Ethiopia from Yekuno Amlaks seizure of power in 1270 until the military coup of 1974. Ethiopian emperors asserted that their right to rule was a product of divine providence and their blessed ancestors, King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. This would make the Ethiopian imperial family one of the oldest dynasties on Earth.Ethiopian history, however, might not back up this narrative. Historian Sara Marzagora believes that Solomonic heritage may have been conceptualized in different ways over time. She writes that at some points, the Kebra Nagast does not appear to have been more important than other sources. The requirements for being a good ruler werent solely based on descent from King Solomon, either. A rulers experience leading military campaigns and just being an Orthodox Christian might have carried even more weight.Emperor Haile Selassie, c. 1942. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe problem of imperial succession complicates things, too. Ethiopian tradition upheld a dynastic plan but the oldest son of an emperor would not necessarily gain the throne. Succession disputes between brothers, fathers, uncles, and sons occurred throughout the Medieval Period. Between the 1770s and 1850s, local warlords were more powerful than the emperor himself. And noble intermarrying meant that a single, unbroken House of Solomon probably didnt exist. A genealogical link to King Solomon may have been more symbolic than literal.Ethiopias later emperors took the Solomonic myth literally. Faced with Italian imperialism, Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889-1913) justified his rule based on the Old Testament narratives. Haile Selassie, Ethiopias final monarch, emphasized this as well in Ethiopias 1955 constitution. The idea that Ethiopias divinely ordained monarchy was very ancient mirrored contemporary propaganda in pre-war Japan.Ethiopian history would undergo a seismic shift in the 1970s. A major student movement and a military coup by communist officers violently forced Haile Selassie from power in September 1974. The Solomonic line was finished.Conclusion: Ethiopias King Solomon ConnectionFlag of modern Ethiopia. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor 700 years, Ethiopian monarchs used Solomonic heritage (whether symbolic or literal) to buttress their claims to the throne. Given elite intermingling and repeated succession crises, a single, united family did not retain control for the entire period. Still, the idea of descent from King Solomon was remarkably durable in pre-modern Ethiopia. An emperors claim of descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba was an important element in securing his political legitimacy.Bibliography1 Kings (New International Version).2 Chronicles (New International Version).Grief, Isaac Toman. Solomonic Descent in Ethiopian History. World History Encyclopedia. November 18, 2021. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1875/solomonic-descent-in-ethiopian-history/.Marzagora, Sara. Refashioning the Ethiopian Monarchy in the Twentieth Century: An Intellectual History. Global Intellectual History 7, no. 3 (2020): 533-557. Accessed October 29, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1080/23801883.2020.1796237.

Europes long Middle Ages have a reputation as a low point in Western civilization. The period from the 5th to the 15th century is a byword for anything unenlightened and barbaric. Modern historians, however, prefer to view this stretch as a series of epochs and incremental changes. Among these, the 12th-century Renaissance is especially notable. As a time of intellectual, artistic, political, and economic growth, it illustrates the true dynamism of the Medieval Period and hints at the progress that gradually brought about the more famous Renaissance of a later age.What Was the 12th Century Renaissance?Philosophy and the Seven Liberal Arts, as illustrated in Hortus deliciarum, c. 1180. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe concept of a 12th century Renaissance was popularized by historian Charles Homer Haskins in his 1927 work The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Haskins wanted to fight the perception of medieval western and central Europe as a stagnant society, undergoing little change. Terms like medieval and Middle-Ages are themselves derived from this attitude, implying a kind of intermission between the greatness of the Roman Empire, which ended in the 5th century, and the Renaissance of the (roughly) 15th century. Haskins highlighted the dynamic growth in scholarship and intellectual output that started in the High Middle Ages.What brought about this growth? While Haskins focused mostly on the intellectual life of the 12th century, others have tried to fill out the world of that era. Researchers have since written about the economic, demographic, and climatic context of this booming period, giving us clues about its possible causes.The 12th century in Europe was a time of increased prosperity. In part, this expansion was fueled by climate12th century Europe was going through a Medieval Warm Period which produced good harvests. Farmers also became more innovative, using more efficient methods of plowing, and broadening their system of crop rotation, while exploiting more farmland.This agricultural surplus fueled an increase in commerce and the growth of population and cities. In 1939, economist William Beveridge published a history of English prices. His work showed that Europe experienced a price revolution or trend of inflation starting in the late 1100s. A rising population, with a little more to spend, was creating rising demand for products, inflating their price. As society moved a little further away from subsistence, more people could move to cities and devote themselves to pursuits like scholarship and art.New StabilityViking Attack, from Feodalites, c. 1100. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother contributing factor was increased security and stability. By the 12th century, western Europes security situation had changed for the better, enabling peaceful growth. The bloody raids of the Vikings and Magyars had ended. Meanwhile, powerful states and cities were emerging.For centuries, the Scandinavian Vikings and Eurasian Magyars had launched attacks into Europe from its northern and eastern corners respectively. These raids had supplied the freebooters with pillage, slaves, extortion money, and increasingly, territory. The Magyars struck by land on horseback, while the Vikings came by the waterways. Churches and monasteries, the cultural centers of their day, were often ravaged by both groups, because of their weakness and stores of valuables.By the 12th century, these raiders had changed their way of life as they were absorbed into mainstream Europe. The Scandinavian peoples formed the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden and gradually accepted Christianity. The Magyars settled down, forming the new Kingdom of Hungary, and likewise converted. These new kingdoms now dealt with the rest of Christendom on a state-to-state basis, rather than through sporadic raids and extortion.Frederick Barbarossa and his sons, Henry VI and Frederick VI, from the Chronic of the Guelphs, c. 1179-1191, accessed via Wellesley CollegeInternally, many European kingdoms became more stable and secure. The 12th century was an era notable for strong, centralizing monarchs. Frances Louis VI (the Fat) forced his wild barons to submit to his authority. His grandson Philip II (Augustus) expanded the power and reach of the French crown, administered justice, and clawed back land from neighbors. Englands Henry II was an accomplished lawgiver and administrator. Meanwhile, the German (Holy Roman) Empire reached a high level of unity and prestige under Frederick I (Barbarossa).There was also a parallel movement of increasingly powerful and independent cities. Cities across western Europe shook off their feudal lords, and established self-governing communes, loyal only to the king. The most powerful and independent cities blossomed in northern Italy, which had no king.The consolidation of monarchies and communes helped bring order and administer justice to 12th-century populations. People were now less at the mercy of local nobles and neighborhood bullies. Just like financial prosperity, security and order created a more stable society and a springboard for culture.Classical Learning and the Rise of the UniversityPtolemy, Justus Van Gent, 1475. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLike the more famous Renaissance of the 15th century, the intellectual revival of the 12th century was rooted in a renewed emphasis on the learning of the Greco-Roman world. The works of Greek writers like Ptolemy, Plato, and Aristotle, and Romans like Ovid, Cicero, and Seneca began to be read more widely, as scholars tried to apply the science and ethics of antiquity to a Christian worldview.Not all writings were easy to come by. While Western Europeans had long had access to works in Latin, much of the Greek store of knowledge was untranslated and unavailable. In their curiosity to recover the Greek classics, Western Europeans turned to a language even more remote to themArabic. Arab writers had translated a large catalog of Greek works into their own tongue. Spain, then mostly under Moorish rule, served as the nearest point of contact between Arabic and Western European culture.Italian, Scottish, and English scholars, among others, traveled to Moorish Spain and came back with a treasure trove of new translations of the Greeks. They brought back the medical texts of Galen and Hippocrates, Ptolemys model of the solar system, the philosophy of Aristotle, as well as much astronomy, astrology, and mathematics.The way in which knowledge spread also changed in the 12th century. The age saw the development of the first universities in the Western world, the forerunners of all modern universities. Up to that point, medieval learning had been centered around monasteries and cathedral schools. While those institutions still thrived, students also began to flock to the big cities to get instruction from the popular masters of the day.Groups of students and teachers were incorporated into new academic institutions. By the end of the 12th century universities had formed in Bologna, Paris, Montpellier, Oxford, and Salerno. Cambridge would follow in 1209.Bernard in discussion with Abelard during the Council of Soissons, by Claude Mellan, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe new centers of learning could specialize in a broad range of topics, including secular (non-religious) subjects. The University of Bologna, in Italy, was the seat of a legal Renaissance. Their scholars made a system of the study of Roman law, which the university helped reintroduce into Europes courts. Salerno, specialized in medicine. The University of Paris, meanwhile, became the intellectual center of Western Europe, famous for lectures on theology and philosophy.While universities took instruction to a broader audience than cathedral schools and monasteries, European intellectual life continued to be wedded to the church. In 12th-century Christian societies, most leading thinkers were clerics. Bernard of Clairvaux, John of Salisbury, and Anselm of Canterbury were all churchmen. Meanwhile, French scholars Peter Abelard and Heloise dArgenteuil found the church to be their only practical option.Abelard and Heloise have gone down as the most celebrated couple of their age. Peter Abelard (1079-1142) was a popular teacher who applied classical logic to existential questions of reality, as well as those of church doctrine. Heloise (1098-1164) was one of his students, a learned young noblewoman. The two became lovers yet were separated by Heloises family. Abelard became a monk, Heloise a nun and abbess. Both achieved respect and renown as scholars during their lifetime and beyond.Cloister, Bologna University. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAbelards great rival, St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), followed a different path to the church. Bernard was attracted to an ascetic life, joining a Cistercian monastery as a young man. A gifted preacher and writer, Bernard promoted a back-to-basics reform of the church, warning against luxury and vanityboth physical and intellectual. He rejected new ideas like Abelards which he saw as heretical. As an intellectual leader, Bernard became more influential than some popes of his day and is considered one of the leading theologians in Christian history.Abelard and St. Bernard illustrate two strains of 12th-century thought. Abelard wanted to explore knowledge for its own sake, while Bernard wanted to keep Christians grounded in what was important. St. Bernard can be seen either as the archenemy of the 12th-century Renaissance or as a leading contributor to 12th-century thought.Literature and SongCasket with troubadours, 1180, copper, enamel, gold,from the court of Aquitaine Limoges, France. Source: The British MuseumThe revival of law, philosophy, and the sciences were not the only fruits of this Renaissance. As literacy spread, songs and poems multiplied. Entertainment flourished in the troubadour tradition of what is now southern France.William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (1071-1126), a knight, and poet, helped popularize this art form. William composed and sang poems of courtly love in the Occitan language. Many southern noblemen followed his lead. Courtly love was the wooing of (usually married) noblewomen by knights, who had to prove themselves worthy through patience and growth of character. Troubadour themes could also cover topics like politics and morality.William IXs granddaughter, Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204), was a patron of the troubadours art. After Eleanor married Englands Henry II, she helped to spread southern culture to Henrys northern French dominions. Trouveres sprang up as the northern equivalent of troubadours. Eleanors daughter from her first marriage, Marie of France, became Countess of Champagne, and from her northern fief became a great patron of music and literature in her own right.Lancelot fighting the Dragon of the Val, 1404-60. Source: BnFLiterature as entertainment made a strong comeback at this time, notably in the form of Arthurian romances. Stories of King Arthur and the knights of his round table, of Merlin the magician, of Queen Guinevere, and of Parzivals quest for the holy grail, stem from the 12th century more than any other.British churchman Geoffrey of Monmouth (1095-1155) picked up scraps from 6-7th century Welsh poetry about Arthur, a brave British warrior who resisted Saxon invaders. Arthur stands on a shaky historical foundation, no one knows if he even existed. Geoffrey, however, started to flesh out a world for King Arthur, introducing new characters and writing extensively on Merlins prophecies.In the late 12th century, Chretien De Troyes, a French writer patronized by Marie of France picked up where Geoffrey left off. Chretien introduced Lancelot, the holy grail, and other classic Arthurian tropes. While set in the 6th century, Chretiens Arthurian world reflected 12th-century views of chivalry and politics.Art and ArchitectureRose Window of the Basilica of St. Denis. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe 12th century also saw the beginning of new trends in architecture and the visual arts. As in academia, members of the clergy drove much of this growth. With enormous resources, ambitious churchmen hired craftsmen to construct beautiful, elaborate new creations, allowing them to express themselves while exalting God.Abbot Sugers (c. 1081-1151) rebuilding of the Basilica of St. Denis popularized a bold new style of architecture later labeled as Gothic. Sugers basilica was built to be unusually tall and spacious, with many windows to bathe the interior in light.A few key architectural techniques became the cornerstones of the new Gothic style. Flying buttresses were used on the upper exterior. These arches helped to relieve the building of some of the pressure of its weight. In the interior, rib vaults, a group of very tall arches or arched ribs, intersected to form a ceiling. Pointed arches, which could support more weight, were used indoors, as vaults, and decorative features.The famous Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris was begun in the late 12th century along Gothic lines, as was the magnificent Cathedral at Chartres in northern France. In the following century, England would build Canterbury Cathedral and an updated version of Westminster Abbey in Gothic style.Virgin and Child, late 12th century, Gothic. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnother French innovation was Gothic sculpture and later painting. Human figures now assumed more realistic shapes, while their faces showed a richer range of emotions. The stained glass in Gothic churches depicted realistic human forms in a highly ornate and colorful setting.Romanesque painting and sculpture, meanwhile, were more expressive and could be less realistic. This style was strongest in southern Europe and was inspired by Roman and Byzantine art. Romanesque paintings were an elaborate mix of human shapes and decorative patterns, designed to convey a messageoften religiousto their audience.Bibliography:The Applied History Research Group/ University of Calgary. (1997) The End of Europes Middle Ages, The End of Europes Middle Ages Economy (umb.edu)Bradbury, J. Philip Augustus King of France 1180-1223. The Medieval World. Routledge.Broedel, H.P. (2017) History of Applied Science and Technology. Chapter 5- The Rise of Universities and the Discovery of Aristotle. Chapter 5 The Rise of Universities and the Discovery of Aristotle History of Applied Science & Technology (rebus.community)Burns, J.H Ed. (1988) The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c.350-c.1450. Cambridge University Press.Chavas, J.P, Bromley, D.W. (2005) Modeling Population and Resource Scarcity in Fourteenth-century England. Journal of Agricultural Economics/ Volume 56, Issue 2/ p. 217-237.Fischer, D.H (1996) The Great Wave. Oxford University Press.The Gothic style-an introduction. Victoria and Albert Museum.The Gothic style an introduction V&A (vam.ac.uk)Hammer, J. (September, 2022) Was King Arthur a Real Person? Smithsonian Magazine.Was King Arthur a Real Person? | Smithsonian (smithsonianmag.com)Haskins, C.H (1955) The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Harvard University Press. Work originally published 1927.James, E. (2011, Mar.9) BBC. History Overview: The Vikings, 800 to 1066. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/overview_vikings_01.shtmlKing, P. and Arlig A. (2022, August 12) Peter Abelard, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abelard/Ozment, S. (August 18, 2020) The High Middle Ages Yale University PressSomerville, A. and McDonald, R. (2013) The Vikings and their Age. University of Toronto Press.Swanson, R. (1999) The Twelfth-Century Renaissance. Manchester University Press.Thorndike, L. (1917) The History of Medieval Europe. Houghton Mifflin.Winiarski, M.V.R (2017) The Troubadours, About Troubadours.About Troubadours | TrobEu (trob-eu.net)

Captain Kidd was one of many notorious pirates that operated during the 17th century Golden Age of Piracy. Legend has it he hid his treasure, intending to come back to it, but was stopped short when the law caught up with him. So where is this alleged treasure, and if people know where it is, has someone retrieved it? Just off of the town East Hampton, New York is Gardiners Island, named after the family that has owned it since 1693. Six years later William Kidd sailed there in June and with permission of the Gardiner family buried what amounted to a box of gold, two of silver in a ravine. He gave a gift of cloth and sugar to the family as thanks saying he would be back for it.Buried Treasure: illustration of William Captain Kidd overseeing a treasure burial, by Howard Pyle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile this is a confirmed treasure burial, there are rumors of other buried treasure that Kidd hid on other islands and areas he visited. This includes near the Rahway River in New Jersey. No, there is no treasure map with a special x marking the spot. Nor is he the only pirate or thief who had allegedly buried treasure and gold for later. It has driven many to seek out their fortune as treasure hunters.What Is Captain Kidds Background?William Kidd, privateer, pirate. 18th century portrait by Sir James Thornhill, 1750. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWilliam Kidd was born around 1645 in Greenock, Scotland. Outside of this not much is known about his background. The general consensus seems to be that he was at sea at a very early age. At the time it wasnt unusual for youth to serve as cabin boys between 12-16 years old on ships. They would carry out tasks like cleaning, fetching and moving supplies, steering, and rigging. They were often children who had very little other options, they were either orphans or came from impoverished families.Pirates of the Eastern Seas (1618-1723), A Lurid Page of History by Charles Grey. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKidd eventually became a Captain and was a privateer a person that commits piracy on behalf of the government against enemy ships. This often took place during times of war. Unlike regular pirates, privateers are taxed on the goods or money they get from their raids. They can only keep a small portion of what they receive, while the rest goes to the commissioner. Their job turns nasty when privateers dont stop after the government asks them to cease activities when peace is established again.Kidd was a privateer for the Earl of Bellmont, who was the governor of New York, Massachusetts Bay, and New Hampshire. His job was to take down French ships and pirates that were in the Indian Ocean aboard the ship, Adventure Galley, eventually capturing the Quedagh Merchant. However, it was deemed he was a pirate upon his return to Bellomont.What Adventures Did Captain Kidd Have?Captain Kidd in New York Harbor, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, c. 1920. Source: Library of CongressNot all events during Kidds pirating spell were positive. During his initial trip, a third of his crew died from disease, especially cholera. The already decimated crew became even more disheartened with the rugged condition of the ship and that they didnt find many French ships or pirates to attack. Mutiny was mentioned by those that stayed although throughout his time many abandoned him.At one point Kidd killed one of his crewmen, a gunner named William Moore who wanted to attack a Dutch ship. Kidd refused as that would have been an act of piracy. They got into a fight and apparently Kidd dropped a heavy bucket on Moores head. Moore died the next day. While captains were allowed to be violent to their crew up to a point, killing was a against the law.Why Did Kidd Never Return for His Treasure?Hanging of Captain Kidd, 1837. Source: Library of CongressKidd ran into some trouble when he was no longer able to claim being a privateer. The capture of the Quedagh Merchant, which was being used by Armenian merchants to transport goods from Indiana including satin, cloth, gold, and silver, was outside of his job, and officials claimed Kidd to be a pirate. Others were under order to find and capture Captain Kidd and his crew.A cigarette card of Captain Kidd, from Heritage Images / Getty Images. Source: ThoughtCo.Kidd had found out that he was wanted as a pirate. He made arrangements to be on a different ship, sold the stolen items and hid his treasure to be used as way to negotiate his freedom. He went to Governor Bellomont believing he was going to grant him clemency. Instead, as a way to save his own neck and keep at arms length from Kidd, Bellomont lured him to him so he could turn him over to England.Kidd was arrested July 6, 1699. The conditions of the prison he was in were terrible, and he was there for two years before his trial. He had defense lawyers, although due to a funding error he only gained defense on the day of the trial with no preparation. He was charged with murder and piracy, and sentenced to death. Kidd faced public execution by hanging on May 23, 1701 in London. His body was left on display by the river as a warning for future pirates.Has Anyone Tried to Find Kidds Treasure?Gardiners Island. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKidds treasure which he buried on Gardiner Island did not remain secret for long. As the Gardiner family knew where it was buried, they were able to give it to authorities upon Kidds arrest and trial. That treasure is no longer there, unless more was secretly buried on it that the family took to their grave. Legends of other pirates hiding their treasure has persisted over the years. In his book, Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson used many real-life examples of pirates who buried their treasure in a similar way to Captain Kidd.However, despite the many rumors, Captain Kidds treasure is the only pirate stash that has been officially confirmed and found. Often the treasure was spent for goods or gambling, taken back by authorities, or sank to the bottom of the ocean on ships during storms or battles. Considering how long it took to find the Titanic, where there was a large but specific search area, the likelihood of finding sunken treasure for most is unobtainable. The ship that Kidd captured, the Quedagh Merchant, was believed to have been found in December of 2007 near the Dominican Republic.

It is well known that large numbers of Irish settlers migrated to western Britain, especially western Wales, during the early Dark Ages. This was mostly after, but some also before, the fall of Roman Britain. They managed to establish a relatively long-lasting kingdom in Dyfed, southwest Wales, and an even more significant Irish kingdom at Dal Riada in western Scotland. However, it appears that there was another Irish kingdom, albeit only a temporary one, in Dark Age Britain, which has been largely forgotten today.The Life of Saint EfflamDepiction of Saint Efflam in Carnoet, Brittany, c. 18th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Historia Brittonum, written in c. 830, informs us that the Irish settled various parts of western Britain in the late Roman and early Post-Roman periods. Medieval Irish texts corroborate this. Archaeology further confirms it, showing the presence of Irish inscriptions on memorial stones that were evidently used by the elite class in various parts of Wales.It is in this historical context that the Life of St Efflam is set. This is a hagiography, or religious biography, of a figure known as Saint Efflam. As hagiographies go, this is a relatively early one, being written in either the 11th or the 12th century. The account claims that Efflam was the son of an Irish king. It leaves the name of this king unstated, and it also does not specify which kingdom he ruled over. Fortunately, there is a Breton ballad that provides some extra information. It states that Efflams father was a king of Demetia. Brittany was an area in which Efflam was influential, which is why we find information about him from there.Folio 33r from Jesus College MS 20 showing the ancestry of Brychan through his mother Marchell, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian Library, OxfordDemetia is the Latin name for Dyfed, the kingdom of southwest Wales. As already mentioned, this was a Dark Age Irish kingdom, at least until c. 500. However, the term Demetia was sometimes used to refer to South Wales in general. This is important since there was another Irish kingdom in South Wales in the Dark Ages. This was the kingdom of Brycheiniog. Its first king was Anlach, an Irish prince who had married a Brythonic princess named Marchell. Instead of being the son of one of the kings of Dyfed, Efflam could just as easily have been the son of Anlach.Interestingly, this suggestion leads to the possibility that there was another Irish kingdom in Dark Age Britain, which has largely been forgotten. The reason is that the Life of St Efflam states that Efflams father fought against another Irish king. On the other hand, another version of his life, by Albert Le Grand, says that this other king ruled in Britain. Examining the available information about Anlach, this leads us to a very interesting conclusion.Anlach: The Likely Father of Saint EfflamFolio 33r from Jesus College MS 20 showing Cynog the son of Brychan and the daughter of Banadl, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian Library, OxfordAnlach is recorded in the Cognatio Brychan and the De Situ Brecheniauc as fighting against a king named Banadl of Powys. Eventually, the two kings made peace. At some point, Anlach sent his son, Brychan, to the court of King Banadl. Subsequently, Brychan had relations with Banadls daughter.The reason that this is so interesting is because this is a very close match for what the Life of St Efflam says about Efflams father. As we have seen, since he was an Irish king but apparently based in South Wales, he can only have been a king of Dyfed or Brycheiniog. Anlach was a king of Brycheiniog. Just like Anlach, Efflams father is said to have warred against a king for years until eventually making peace. He then sent his son to his former enemys court, and this son then married that kings daughter.Given the strong similarities between these stories and the fact that they are set at the same time, we can likely identify Efflams unnamed father with Anlach. At least, no other attested king from that era is recorded as matching the description of Efflams father so well.Was King Banadl of Powys an Irish King?Map showing the location of Powys, the territory of Banadl. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe reason that this is significant is because the early Life of St Efflam states that the enemy of Efflams father was an Irish king. If Efflams father really was Anlach, then this would mean that Banadl, the king of Powys who fought against Anlach, was apparently Irish. The fact that Albert Le Grands much later version of Efflams life states that Efflams fathers enemy ruled in Britain is consistent with this identification.This is a fascinating conclusion since Powys is not normally included in considerations of the Irish kingdoms of Dark Age Britain. Is there any supporting evidence for the conclusion that Banadl of Powys was Irish? Interestingly, there are a number of online sources that state that Banadl was an Irish usurper. Yet despite this positive assertion, Banadl does not explicitly appear outside of the two aforementioned documents describing Anlachs wars, and these documents do not call Banadl Irish. However, this does not mean that there is no evidence for this statement. In fact, there is good reason to believe it.Eglwys Sant Garmon, St Garmons Church, Denbighshire, dedicated to Germanus who defeated King Benlli. Source: Eirian Evans via GeographIt is difficult to track down the source for the claim that Banadl was an Irish usurper. However, it appears that this ultimately comes from the identification of Banadl with a king mentioned in the Historia Brittonum. This king appears in that document with the name Benlli. For a number of reasons, the identification of these two kings does seem reasonable.The account of Benlli is set during Germanus activities in Britain. As scholars have established, this was Garmon, the bishop of the Isle of Man, not Germanus of Auxerre, as popularly believed. Hence, Benlli evidently ruled in Powys in the late 5th or early 6th century. This would fit very well with Banadl, the enemy of Anlach.As well as ruling at the same time and in the same place, their names are obviously similar. Benlli can reasonably be understood as a shortened form of Banadl. Many instances of such shortenings of names are seen in the medieval manuscripts. One attested variant of Benllis name, Benty, may well preserve the d from the name Banadl.The Irish Kings of PowysView from Ben Nevis overlooking the territory of Dal Riada, from where Benlli allegedly came. Source: Copyright Caleb HowellsWhy has the identification of Benlli with Anlachs enemy Banadl apparently led to the claim that Banadl was an Irish king? There are a number of reasons to believe that Benlli was Irish. For one thing, the account in which he appears in the Historia Brittonum heavily implies that Benlli and his subjects were pagan. Since Christianity had already spread throughout much of Britain by c. 500, this favors the conclusion that Benlli, King of Powys, was Irish rather than a native Briton.Furthermore, in one manuscript version of the Historia Brittonum, King Benlli is actually said to have reigned in Dalreatae or Dalrieta, that is, Dal Riada. This is known to have been an Irish kingdom. Therefore, this manuscript evidently preserves a tradition that King Benlli was from that Irish kingdom. The presence of a king from Dal Riada so far south seems unusual. It may be related to the Welsh tradition that King Arthur fought Rhita Gawr in Gwynedd, northwest Wales, since Rhita is likely identifiable as Domangart Reti of Dal Riada.Wroxeter Stone inscription, c. 460-475. Source: University College LondonThere is yet more evidence that Benlli, and thus his apparent alter ego Banadl, was an Irish king. As we noted earlier, archaeology supports the Historia Brittonums claim that the Irish settled much of western and southern Wales. However, we find some of the same archaeological evidence in Powys. Just as we find apparently elite burial monuments inscribed with Irish ogham text in Dyfed, we find the same in Powys.One example is the Wroxeter Stone. It is also known as the Cunorix Stone. It dates to the second half of the 5th century, possibly near the start of Benllis reign or even before it. It is dedicated to a certain Cunorix, described as the son of Maqui Coline. This is a form of a name later attested in Irish as Macc-Cuilinn. Wroxeter was a prominent and important Roman city in the territory of Powys. Hence, this inscription strongly supports the conclusion that Powys was ruled by an Irish elite class in this period.The Forgotten Irish Kingdom of Powys in Dark Age BritainRoman ruins of Wroxeter, one of the principal cities of early medieval Powys. Source: David Dixon via GeographIn conclusion, although we cannot be dogmatic about it, the evidence does appear to support the conclusion that Powys was a generally forgotten Irish kingdom in Dark Age Britain. The Historia Brittonum presents us with a king of Powys named Benlli, who was evidently a pagan. Based on this and the manuscript, which makes him a king of Dal Riada, it would seem that he was Irish. This is supported by archaeological evidence for Irish elites in Powys in that same era.However, we can also support this by arguing that Benlli should be identified as Banadl. Since they lived at the same time, ruled over the same territory, and had similar names, this identification seems likely. The fact that Anlach is recorded as fighting Banadl is significant in view of the argument that Anlach was Efflams father, who was recorded as fighting an Irish king in Britain. Even if these identifications are rejected, the aforementioned evidence concerning Benlli and the archaeology of Powys stands on its own.

With some video game companies now looking to price rheir games at $80 per copy, some might assume that the big publishers like Electronic Arts (EA) will immediately follow suit, given that means an increase in revenue.

[View Article at Source]At the core of The Atlantics unnecessarily long profile on loud Democrat Rep. Jasmine Crockett is the argument that, when the Republicans go low, the Democrats should

[View Article at Source]By Graham J Noble Just a few months ago, the left-wing legacy media was decidedly Chicken Little on President Donald Trumps tariff talk. Jobs would be lost, inflation would

[View Article at Source]By John Klar Yet another Barack Obama-appointed judge has granted a preliminary injunction to thwart the implementation of a Trump administration initiative. This time, however,