[View Article at Source]Several U.S. allies and partners suppress minority faiths.The post How Trump Can Promote Religious Liberty appeared first on The American Conservative.

The news has been filled in recent months with instances of federal judges delivering attacks on the administration of President Donald Trump, releasing rulings that take control of Executive Branch decisions,

The Gutenberg Press revolutionized how information was produced and disseminated, marking a milestone in the history of book production in Europe. Produced in the mid-15th century by Johannes Gutenberg in Germany, this innovative press combined the movable metal type with a screw press mechanism, making it possible to print books. This offered an alternative to manuscript-making, as before this, book-making was a laborious and slow process that was usually reserved for the specialized monastic scriptoria. This invention fueled major events such as the Protestant Reformation and the Scientific Revolution.Europe on the Eve of the Gutenberg Printing PressJaharis Byzantine Lectionary, Constantinople Workshop, ca. 1100. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkEurope, before Johannes Gutenbergs invention, was a place eager for advancement yet limited by resources, technologies, and accessibility. Even though the culture was rich and the appetite for reading existed, books and manuscripts, in general, were luxury objects as they required the work of several people over a long period of time before they could be completed and used by readers. This limited accessibility meant that literacy was also localized and reserved for certain social groups, such as the clergy, the intellectuals, and those who could afford to learn and buy such items.The most common item used for knowledge communication in this period before the invention of the press was the manuscript. Since the Middle Ages, when it came to manuscript production the monasteries were the main centers which were in charge of the production of manuscripts. The monastic scriptoria were spaces designated specifically for the purpose of copying texts, thus circulating knowledge inside the monastery and outside of it as well. Another factor that encouraged the expansion of knowledge and prompted a need for easier transmission was the university as an institution. Universities rose during the 12th and 13th centuries in important cities in Europe, and by the 16th century, most regions of Europe had at least one university. This steady growth of universities created an increased demand and appetite for books.Who Was Johannes Gutenberg?Issued by Allen & Ginter, Johannes Gutenberg, 1888. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkJohannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468) was born in Mainz in modern-day Germany and was the son of a well-to-do merchant. Unfortunately, not much information is available regarding his early life and youth, but he most likely began an apprenticeship in metalworking and goldsmithing as a young man. This would explain his great familiarity with this type of work, a familiarity which contributed to the invention of the printing press. Around 1440, Gutenberg began developing prototypes for the printing press. The press he was trying to complete didnt succeed from the prototypes but needed several years of work until a functional prototype could be completed. This lengthy process meant that Gutenberg ended up investing most of his personal funds in this project.When word of his printing press prototype began to spread, the businessman Johan Fust was interested in investing in Gutenberg in hopes of getting a high return from this once the press was completed. Gutenberg and Fust planned to complete the press and then print books in a faster and cheaper way, essentially gaining a monopoly over the manuscript market. The aim of this was to use this monopoly to shift the buyers towards printed books as they were more affordable and faster to create. This dream was achieved in 1455 with the printing of the Gutenberg Bible, probably the most well-known publication of the Gutenberg Press. However, due to delays in finishing the press, Gutenberg lost his rights to the press over Fust, and the business went on without him.Printing Press Before GutenbergBishamonten, 1162. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkBefore the Gutenberg Press and beyond monastic scriptoria, other printing techniques were developed in Europe and outside of it. To better understand the world in which the Gutenberg Press came to be, a summary of the printing techniques existing up to the 15th century is necessary. In Europe, printing as an idea appeared during the 14th century when block printing was introduced from East Asia. This technique functioned by sculpting text on wooden blocks, dipping the blocks in ink, and then pressing them on paper. This was similar to a technique used by the Chinese since the 6th century. In East Asia, the moveable type press appeared around the 11th century and used ceramic elements that could be moved around to print the desired text. Despite its similarity to the Gutenberg Press, this invention didnt have a lasting impact.The Islamic world didnt have a type of printing press. A popular method of imprinting something on paper was stenciling. However, this was used mainly for decoration purposes and not for text. From what can be gathered, in the eastern part of the world, Chinese block printing was the most prominent printing technique. Block printing had been popularized in Central Asia as well in India where it was in use much earlier than in Europe.How Did the Gutenberg Press Work?Printing, Philips Galle, ca. 1589-1593. Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamThe Gutenberg Press functioned with the help of individual letters made out of metal, such as durable alloys made out of lead, tin, and antimony. This ensured that each letter was reusable and moveable, making it possible for them to be arranged in any desired order to create a text. Once the necessary number of letters was selected, the next step was typesetting. During this step, a compositor (someone who was in charge of the process of arranging letters) made sure that the metal letters were placed in a frame that would correspond to the desired page layout. One of their most important tasks was to make sure that the text was placed in the correct orientation and that the letters were aligned and had the right spacing between lines. Once these two first crucial steps were in place, the Gutenberg press could be used.This press had a screw press which was similar to those used in the process of making wine. The press was designed to include a flat plate where the frame with the page layout was placed after it was inked. The inking was done by applying a specially formulated oil-based ink with the help of leather-covered ink balls. The final stages included pressing the inked type on the sheets of dampened paper while the flat plate was pressed using a screw system. After the paper was printed, the operator unscrewed the plate, removed the sheets, and hung them to dry.Operating a Printing WorkshopPrinting Production, Philips Galle, ca. 1589-1593. Source: Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamTo operate a printing workshop was no simple matter, as the process of printing, although quicker than manuscript making, was still a complex one. To run a workshop, one would need from 5 to 20 people to operate the printing press and ensure a smooth production. The first and most important position within a printing workshop would be that of the master printer, who played the role of the manager. Most of the time, the master printer himself was familiar with the printing press and was able to manage the other workers and solve any problems that may have arisen with the press. Besides him, compositors were responsible for arranging the letters on a page, and press operators who mounted the pages on the printing press were essential in this process. For example, for a fast operation of the press, at least two operators were needed as one would ink the type while the other operated the screw mechanism.Ink makers and papermakers were essential to the crafts. They couldve been external collaborators with whom the workshop had contracted. The ink makers were crucial to preparing the special oil-based ink for printing, while the papermakers were the lifeline of the printing because they were the ones who supplied paper and ensured its quality. Some other roles within the workshop included proofreaders who would check for errors and inconsistencies, but also apprentices or manual laborers to help with tasks such as cleaning the press or carrying the materials.Improvements to the Gutenberg Press ModelPrint Printing Company, Abraham Bosse, 1642. Source: Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamThe Gutenberg Press was a successful model for the printing press and changed how books were created. Despite this, it wasnt a perfect model. This is why those who entered the printing business looked for ways to perfect the shortcomings of the Gutenberg Press and improve the speed and efficiency of printing. Some of the improvements of the press include a betterment of the screw mechanism, which allowed for a smoother and more consistent operation. The flat plate was also made more stable and capable of applying more pressure to the paper. During the 17th century, some printing presses added sliding carriages which were used to reposition the type and the paper faster in between print cycles.The production of ink and paper also developed further, with makers now being able to provide ink with better color vibrancy and more consistent pigments. Paper was improved by the adoption of rag-based paper that provided smoother surfaces to capture finer details in print. The general goal of the printing press during the early modern period was to increase automation. This is visible especially in the Dutch Press which developed a counterbalanced lever system that made printing easier and faster, reducing the force required to operate the press. Standardized typefaces and the introduction of more durable metal types encouraged the longevity of the press and made it possible for printmakers to buy used metal types, which were still in good shape due to this improved formula.The Afterlife of the Gutenberg PressPrinting Presses, Longvin, ca. 1850. Source: Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamThe Gutenberg Press had both an immediate and a long-term impact on the dissemination of knowledge and the evolution of books as objects. Books became more affordable and transformed from a luxury item to an affordable one. This led to a dramatic increase in literacy across Europe. The information circulated more freely and wasnt restricted to certain circles. Anyone could print their own work and buy a book. As books were produced in greater numbers than before, they were standardized due to the formats that worked best with the printing press.All of these factors contributed to the information revolution that occurred in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries where the ideas of Martin Luther or Galileo Galilei could reach all corners of Europe. Through books, people engaged with ideas, responded to them, and generated new ideas. This also meant that the publishing industry was on the rise, as the popularity of books meant great returns for book publishers. More and more people were joining this craft in hopes of running a successful business.Interior of Johannes Gutenbergs Printing Works by Ledoux Auguste (printmaker), 1863. Source: Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamThe afterlife of the Gutenberg Press can be seen in the mechanization of the printing press during the 18th and 19th centuries. The manual press was gradually replaced by a steam-powered press that could produce thousands of pages every few hours. The rotary and linotype presses, which appeared during the late 19th century, increased the automation of the press, creating an even greater output of pages.Despite the Gutenberg Press being a European phenomenon, the printing revolution of the early modern period must be seen in a global context. The early Asian models of the printing press, together with the colonial expansion of European powers, made the printing press and the production of books readily available around the world. From this perspective, it comes as no surprise why the Gutenberg Press is credited as the catalyst for the Information Age and why the Gutenberg Bible is such a precious milestone in our collective history of the book.

Few American legends are as widely known as the story of Johnny Appleseed. But as with many tales of Americana, it can be hard to separate fact from fiction. While Johnny was a real person, his moniker of Appleseed was not his actual last name but a nickname given to him for his dedication to apples and their symbolic importance. In reality, John Chapman was a missionary and orchardist who had a reputation for kindness. How did his legend grow so widely, and what is the truth behind his adventures?1. Johnny Appleseeds Real Name Was John ChapmanA stone marker at John Chapmans birthplace in Leominster. Source: Wikimedia Commons.John Chapman was born in Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1774, as the Revolutionary War was dawning. He was one of four children. His mother died from tuberculosis when he was a child, and his father remarried. The Chapman parents would go on to have ten more children, including a son named Nathaniel, who was especially close to John. Their home was a Christian one, but little else is known of Chapmans early life.2. Chapman Was an Eccentric DresserAn etching of Chapman from Harpers New Monthly Magazine in 1871. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs a young adult, Chapman began traveling west (in what is now considered the midwestern United States), often in the company of his younger brother Nathaniel. He interacted and visited with many settlers in these young areas of the new United States and was a welcome visitor to many. His hosts often noted his strange manner of dress. He sometimes traded apple seeds or saplings for hand-me-down clothing with settlers who couldnt afford to purchase his goods outright. However, he often donated these items to others in need and was content to wear coffee sacks with holes cut for his arms and head. Stories tell of him wearing a hat made from a saucepan or tin can.Chapman was known to travel barefoot most of the time, even in cold weather. The soles of his feet became so tough that he could stick a needle in them without any sort of pain reaction. This was, in fact, a trick he used to entertain children on his journeys.3. Johnny Appleseed Was a Man of FaithThe Swedenborg Chapel in Cambridge, MA. Source: The Swedenborg ChapelRaised in a pious household, Chapmans faith developed into a cornerstone for his life. According to biographers, it was the core of his being. Raised a Christian Congregationalist, he was fluent in biblical teachings and enjoyed telling Bible stories to people of all ages whom he met on his travels across the Midwest. He later became interested in the teachings of a man named Emanuel Swedenborg. This interest led him to join the Church of New Jerusalem, or Swedenborgian church, based on the teachings of the theologian Swedenborg. These teachings often directly contrasted with the popular religions of young America, which emphasized fire and brimstone.Swedenborgs interpretations were those of a more loving and understanding higher power. Chapman also enjoyed impulsive sermons and was a zealous speaker. News of his ministering even reached the Swedenborg Society, headquartered in Manchester, England, and they noted an account of his deeds in 1817. Swedenborgian teachings emphasized service and united this importance with faith itself. This appears to have agreed perfectly with Chapmans dedication to God and generous nature.4. He Was Known as a Generous Man, But He Was Also a Successful BusinessmanA portrait of a man believed by some to be John Chapman, taken around 1840. Source: Wikimedia Commons.While Chapman was known for his generosity and kindness, he was also an astute man when it came to financial and business matters. Though he lived a bare-bones lifestyle, he made a fortune on his apple trees. Chapman understood the direction of frontier expansion and planted orchards in many unsettled areas that were soon to be invaded by pioneers. These orchards often secured his claim to the land and added value to the properties. Eager settlers were more than happy to purchase Chapmans land parcels or his young trees.Cider and Applejack, a type of brandy, were two important drinks at the time, and quality liquor could even be used as currency. Purchasing land with an existing orchard gave a settler the opportunity to capitalize without waiting years for the trees to become established. When he died, Johnny Appleseed himself still owned more than 1,200 acres of established land in the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, which was left to his family.5. He Got His Nickname Because He Carried Apple SeedsA statue greets visitors outside of the Johnny Appleseed Visitor Information Center in Lancaster, MA. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom the time he first started traveling, Chapman collected seeds for free from cider mills, where apples were pressed to extract the juices. He is often depicted in art as carrying a leather bag in which he stored his seeds. Legends tell stories of Chapman spreading these seeds far and wide to improve the environment as he traveled. While he may have done this occasionally and shared his seeds, he instead focused on using this plant material to create his pioneer nurseries. He planted his seeds with care, selecting suitable planting spots and fencing in the area to prevent wildlife and livestock from interfering with the growth of his trees. He returned to these areas periodically to maintain his investment. His first nickname was actually apple seed man, which later evolved into the historic Johnny Appleseed.6. Chapman Was an Animal LoverChapman regretted his treatment of an aggressive rattlesnake, according to accounts. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe term wouldnt hurt a fly definitely applies to John Chapman, who was known to put out a campfire for fear of harming the local mosquitos. Chapman was a vegetarian and lover of all animals, from the smallest to the largest. He was said to rescue animals from traps and nurse them back to health if needed. He used some of his income from his orchards to purchase mistreated livestock and rehome them with kinder caregivers.However, there is one occasion on which Chapman acted hastily with regard to an animal. When a rattlesnake bit him, he retaliated with his scythe in anger, killing the animal. His account of the event was published after his death in 1871 in Harpers Monthly, in which Chapman was quoted as calling the snake a poor fellow.7. He Can Be Credited With Helping Apples Flourish in AmericaApples have become a mainstay in American agriculture. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy planting his trees using seeds, rather than the more popular propagation method of grafting, in which the new trees are a genetic copy of a single parent tree, Chapman promoted the development of several new varieties of apples. Though grafting was common in his time (and is still widely used in the fruit industry today), Chapman felt it was unnatural and stated that God only can improve the apple. Planting apples by seed allowed the plants to adapt and develop resistances to changes in their environment. Some of todays favorite apple cultivars descend from Chapmans trees.Chapmans cultivars were small, bitter fruits. Source: Artur Opala / Wikimedia CommonsDespite Chapmans genetic contributions, the apples he planted and maintained were not the uniform, sweet fruits that are enjoyed in grocery stores today. His trees produced spitters, which were not for fresh eating but better suited to the creation of hard cider and apple brandy. Not only could these commodities be used to give settlers purchasing power, but they also provided them the means to create their own beverage. Water sources were often unreliable, particularly when settlers were entering a new area, and a liquor drink was often the safest choice when it came to consuming liquids. Making the drinks was a relatively simple process, utilizing wild yeasts, and one did not need to be an expert to be successful. Applejack could reach up to 66 proof and wouldnt freeze in the winter.8. Chapman Died Trying to Save One of His OrchardsJohn Chapmans gravesite, photographed in 2017. Source: Charles Chapman / Wikimedia CommonsIn March of 1845, Chapman received notice that a fence protecting one of his orchards in Indiana had been compromised, and cattle had invaded the trees. He left for the orchard immediately, determined to protect his young trees from the hungry animals and their damaging hooves. Unfortunately, the weather didnt cooperate with his intentions, and a snowstorm was in his path. Nevertheless, Chapman pressed on. While stopping to rest on his journey, he developed pneumonia, which would lead to his death a few days later. Chapman died at age 71 on March 18, 1845. His final resting place is unknown, but memorials to his legacy exist in several locations across the US, including Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana.His legend began to truly develop decades after his death when an account of his life was published in Harpers New Monthly Magazine. Since then, poetry, fiction, movies, songs, and books have further idolized this frontier legend. Many modern Americans were first introduced to Appleseed in a Disney cartoon, a short called Melody Time, that first premiered in 1948. The charming title character is dressed in colonial garb, wears a pot on his head, and spreads his apple seeds far and wide, leading to the growth of beautiful, delicious apples. Though largely fiction, the cartoon did capture Chapmans light-hearted attitude and religious nature and contributed greatly to the ongoing mythical appeal of his life.9. Appleseeds Legacy Lives OnAn image that originated from an apple cultivated in Maine. Source: US Department of Agriculture Pomological Watercolor Collection / Wikimedia CommonsJohn Chapmans great, great, great, great nephew, who shares his name, maintains a number of small apple orchards in Maine, including trees that are descended from his ancestors seeds. Chapman continues the public outreach work that his uncle started, including donating trees.Chapman resides in Athens, Maine. A veteran of the US Navy and a former millwright, he is also a reptile enthusiast and expert. As a man of faith like his forebear, one of his lifetime goals is to plant some of his ancestors trees in Israel.

The Middle Ages has a reputation for being a time when the average person lived in filth and squalor, bathing was unheard of, and personal hygiene was a foreign concept. But is this true? There is no simple answer to this question since the Middle Ages lasted almost a thousand years, and customs differed in different parts of the world. But it is fair to say that while medieval hygiene probably wouldnt impress by modern standards, people had bathing and hygiene routines and understood the importance of cleanliness to protect against sickness and disease.Regular WashingSwimmers, by Peter of Eboli, in MS Morgan Library and Museum G.74, fol. 5r., Netherlands, c. 1520. Source: Princeton UniversityBathing was the cornerstone of any hygiene routine in the Medieval era. The exact methods used varied greatly depending on the season, location, and wealth of the person wanting to clean themselves. For those near rivers and streams, dipping themselves in the water and scrubbing themselves with a cloth could provide some degree of cleanliness. This could be done several times a week, though it would become less frequent in colder seasons since the threat of hypothermia was much more of a concern than washing.For those who lived further away from a body of water, this was not always feasible. Water had to be transported by hand from the water source, such as a lake, river, or well, and then hauled into the persons home. Because of this limitation, the act of full bathing was not as common except among the wealthy. But for those who could afford to do so, such as the nobility, bathing was taken very seriously. Most commonly, they would bathe in a basin or barrel, and rather than sitting in the water, would stand and pour the water over themselves. Bathing and overall cleanliness were so important that some nobles would travel with a portable tub so they could stay clean, even when on the road.For peasants too poor to have servants haul water from the local river to fill the basin, much less labor intensive methods would be used. Often, this would involve using a damp cloth to scrub away the dirt and grime from the hands, underarms, and genitals. This was done several times a week, if not daily. Hand washing from a small ewer was also commonplace, and people could wash, or at least rinse their hands, several times a day. The medieval period did not yet develop the germ theory for disease, though it was obvious that eating with dirty hands was a cause of disease, even if they were unaware of the reason. Washing the feet, especially before sleeping, was also a common practice.Venus Bathing attended by Nymphs, by Jean Mignon, c. 1525-55. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtIn large enough cities, there were bath houses. These establishments had large pools that could be filled with warm water. They sent out boys as criers to tell the locals that the water was hot. These places were used for both bathing and socialization. Townsfolk could gossip, play games, and interact with one another in a casual environment. Men and women bathed together, which was generally accepted, although clergy would oftentimes condemn bath houses, not for the bathing itself, but from the inevitable prostitution that happened there.Soap and Pest ControlAnglo-Saxon Comb made from antler, England, c. 10th or 11th century. Source: British MuseumIn addition to washing with water, other methods were used to stay as clean as possible. Soap had been used for centuries as a way to clean clothing and was made from a mixture of fat, usually tallow, and potash. Soap of this kind was not used on the skin since it was very harsh. It wasnt until the introduction of soaps made from olive oil and other plants that it became mild enough for washing bodies. These soaps were a luxury reserved for the rich and well-connected. For the poorer classes of society, water would be infused with various herbs and scented plants, such as basil, mint, or lavender. If nothing else, a person could rub their hands with wood ash. The ash would mix with the oils of the persons skin, creating improvised soap. However, they had to be careful to rinse it off quickly, or it could result in a chemical burn.Despite their best efforts, the medieval population was plagued by numerous parasites, such as fleas and lice. Mattresses were stuffed with straw, a perfect breeding ground for these pests. To drive them away, they were often infused with herbs such as lavender, mint, or chamomile. These same herbs were also hung around the house as makeshift air fresheners.To keep lice and fleas out of a persons hair, people used combs. These could be made from ivory for those who could afford it, though even the poorest of peasants could afford to whittle a comb from wood. These would be fine-toothed and not only helped rid hair and beards of pests but also swept away grime and dirt. Daily combing was a common practice, so common that combs are among the most common grave goods found in Norse burials. Clothing could also be infested with pests. It was hung up next to the fireplace overnight for the heat and smoke to drive the bugs away.The Dentist, by Lucas van Leyden, 1523. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of ArtWhile people in the Middle Ages were concerned about their outer cleanliness, they were also worried about other aspects of hygiene. Dental care involved using makeshift brushes made from sticks, often hazel branches, to scrub the teeth. They could also be cleaned using linen cloths after a meal, and mouthwashes of vinegar and herbs would also be used regularly. Records suggest that the Welsh were particularly obsessive with dental care and polished their teeth so often that they would shine like ivory. Care had to be taken to avoid seeing a dentist, who could be less than gentle when dealing with rotten teeth.Waste and Disease ManagementAquamanile or water pitcher shaped like a lion, Germany, c. 13th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtOne of the most enduring myths about the Middle Ages is that they had a flippant attitude towards removing human waste. Supposedly, excrement was simply thrown out of a window onto the street. This is simply not true. First of all, no one wants to live near the smell of human waste if it can be avoided, so dumping it out of a window right next to ones house is unlikely. Moreover, many towns and cities had very strict laws about the cleanliness of their streets. As a general rule, the owner of a house was responsible for the upkeep of the area directly in front of their property. There are many examples of fines levied for citizens who allowed rubbish of any kind to accumulate in front of their homes. Dumping waste into the street would almost certainly result in a hefty fine that could easily be avoided.On large estates or castles, waste was disposed of in latrines or cesspits outside the building, which were emptied regularly by dedicated workers called gong farmers. Cesspits could be lined with stone to prevent seepage into the surrounding area. The waste was then transported to a local river or stream, or given to farmers for fertilizer. Smaller homes also had latrines outside, though on a much smaller scale.In cities, smaller homes did not have the luxury of a latrine and used buckets to collect the excrement, disposing of it later in a stream or communal cesspit. In castles, toilets were located overhanging the moat, the defensive ditch that ringed the fortress. These methods were not totally efficient, and dumping waste into a waterway only served to contaminate it further downstream. Nevertheless, efforts were at least made to dispose of waste safely. Urine was also disposed of the same way, though it could also be collected and used for a number of industrial purposes, such as tanning and wool processing.Plague victims buried in coffins, in Gilles li Muisis, Antiquitates Flandriae, 1349-1352. Source: Royal Library of BelgiumDespite their efforts, there was little the people of the Middle Ages could do to prevent the spread of certain diseases, given their lack of technology and understanding of germs. During the 14th century, Europe was gripped by the Black Death, a bubonic plague that killed off about a third of the population. Numerous methods were used to cure the disease, which ranged from prayer and fasting to bloodletting and more bizarre esoteric cures, like using precious stones or rubbing the cut-up parts of a snake on the skin. Some techniques, however, were actually effective in stopping the spread of the disease. Our medieval ancestors engaged in social distancing. Those who had the means to do so would leave a plague-contaminated area, keeping themselves apart from the infected.However, this only worked if the refugees were accepted in the new area. Many medieval cities closed their doors to those fleeing from plagued-ravaged lands or imposed strict measures on them. One of these was to isolate the potentially infected individuals in designated areas away from the rest of the population. Initially, this was for 30 days, but it was soon increased to 40 days, a process known as quorontino, which entered the English language as quarantine. Milan took a very hard stance against the plague, at one point locking three households inside of their homes to keep the disease from spreading. They also set up a building outside of the city where the plague victims could be cared for away from the general population. As a result of these measures, Milan suffered lower rates of mortality from the Black Death than other parts of Europe.Why the Terrible Reputation?Medieval washerwoman, Cod. Pal. germ. 794, folio 30v, c. 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPeople in the medieval period would indeed be considered unhygienic by our modern standards, but this is more due to advances in technology and understanding of biology and germ theory than for lack of trying. In fairness, people in the Middle Ages were just as concerned about cleanliness and hygiene as we are today. So, why does this time period have such a poor reputation in the modern world for its filth? The answer is likely found in the Victorian era.During the Middle Ages, not everyone took hygiene seriously. Clergy often considered excessive concern over cleanliness a sign of vanity and pride and a symptom of concerning oneself with earthly things over spiritual matters. Consequently, many did not clean themselves and even thought of living with things such as lice and fleas as a test of spiritual discipline; their ability to endure such conditions was a way to humble themselves. Victorian historians and scholars saw these tales and extrapolated the actions of a few individuals as representative of the population at large. The Victorian era was also one of scientific advancement, and history was treated as a moral lesson. They wanted to show how far society had progressed over the centuries and would latch onto stories that painted the superstitious past in a negative light to highlight their own sense of advancement.More recent scholarship and careful reading of texts have concluded that the unhygienic Middle Ages are, for the most part, an exaggeration. Pop culture and general misunderstanding have magnified this myth over the years.

From 1347 to 1353, the Bubonic Plague, more commonly referred to as the Black Death, wracked the continent of Europe. It was a time of misery and suffering as almost half of Europes population succumbed to the disease, sending shockwaves throughout the continent and forcing drastic socio-economic upheaval that rearranged the status quo and led to a questioning of everything that had been believed.Its effects, however, are not locked into the past, and much can be learned from what happened and how it affected society. This article examines the Bubonic Plague and the impacts of a pandemic on the socio-economic fabric of civilization, both now and then.The Bubonic Plague in EuropeLithograph of a woman in rags drawing a cart of plague victims, by J. Moynet, 1852, after L. Duveau. Source: Wellcome CollectionBubonic plague is caused by a bacterium, Yersinia pestis, which is transmitted by fleas found on rats. Once a human is infected, the plague can be transmitted through the air, generally through coughing and sneezing.It is thought to have been introduced to Europe by the Mongols during the Siege of Kaffa on the Crimean Peninsula. Themselves suffering from the plague, they catapulted infected corpses into the Genoese city, and ships traveling to and from the port carried the disease to various other ports in the Mediterranean. From there, it spread inland and caused devastation. Urban areas were particularly hard hit, and entire communities were wiped out. It is thought that between 25 and 50 million people died in Europe as a result, representing around 50 percent of Europes population at the time.The initial reaction to the plague was fear and panic. People fled, often abandoning their families and their jobs. The societal structure of Europe was put under pressure, unable to withstand the speed and ferocity with which the disease spread and infected its victims.A House of CardsThe bacterium Yersinia pestis, the cause of the Bubonic Plague. Source: CDC / Courtesy of Larry Stauffer, Oregon State Public Health Laboratory / Wikimedia CommonsMuch like it is today, society was an intricate web of interconnectivity. Disruptions to one part of it can have massive effects on other parts. Movement between areas was part of life as people conducted trade, pilgrims went on pilgrimages, and troops moved from place to place. Whatever communicable diseases they had, they took with them.Furthermore, many places in Europe were perfect breeding grounds for the disease to spread. European cities were unsanitary and often overpopulated. Buckets of human waste were emptied onto streets filled with scores of busy people and domesticated cattle. With the addition of wet, and sometimes humid weather, the disease found little difficulty in spreading, and was carried far and wide as people moved between towns and cities.The spread of the Bubonic Plague through Europe. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Black Death reached Sicily in October 1347 and France in November 1347. In the following year, the plague was evident throughout southern France as well as Rouen and Paris. The northern parts of Italy and Spain were also hit, while the port city of Bristol in England is thought to have been infected in the summer of 1348. From there, the plague spread to London in September.The plague then spread northwards, infecting all of England and Wales as well as Ireland. At this point, the Scots took the opportunity to raid Durham. It is suggested that this action could have been the vector for the plague spreading to Scotland. Whatever the case, the disease spread northwards, taking hold in northern Europe and spreading northeastwards.The perceived strength of the continents society and economy was put to the test and collapsed quickly under the weight of such an immense tragedy. The collapse, however, was not the end of society. People adapted, and society recovered, albeit with major changes.Confused ResponsesThe flagellants at Doornik in 1349. Source: H.F. Helmolt, History of the World, Volume VII, Dodd Mead 1902 / Pierart dou Tielt (fl. 1340-1360) / Wikimedia Commons.The collapse showed that European society was not as hardy as it was perceived to be. The plague forced much of the continents activities to grind to a halt, as people scrambled to make sense of what was happening.The interpretations and responses to what was happening were varied. Many turned to religion, and either questioned it with angry or saddened skepticism, or became even more fervent in their religious convictions. Many believed that the bubonic plague was a punishment from God. Religious sects of people called flagellants gained huge popularity during the years of the Black Death. They believed in publicly whipping themselves as a way to atone for their sins.The medical community was severely put to the test, as medical knowledge at the time did not understand germ theory and vectors for transmission. There were confusing theories and harmful treatments, as well as fear and panic. Many doctors fled the urban areas, overwhelmed by the responsibility of treating the hordes of dying patients. Priests were also gripped by fear, and some refused to administer last rites to those infected.Medieval Jewish musicians. Source: Paul Gifford collection / Wikimedia CommonsIn the confusion brought about by the plague, people looked to apportion blame on minorities and misunderstood groups of people. Jews and Romani became targets for attack, as well as lepers. Without reasonable evidence, minorities were blamed for spreading the plague.While the urban areas were the hardest hit, those who fled the cities were still in significant danger. The bubonic plague also affected horses, cattle, pigs, and chickens. These animals often did not show clinical signs of the disease, but it is theorized that they could transmit it to nearby humans. The primary vectors, however, were rats and their fleas, as well as other human beings.What this indicates is that under the threat of such dire developments, confusion and uncertainty are a given. People respond with many emotions, including anger and despair, and are quick to cast blame. This was true in the Middle Ages, and still true today.Europes Economy TransformsMedieval coins, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe massive death toll led to a major transformation of Europes economic systems. Feudalism, which had been an established system for hundreds of years, took strain from the massive reduction in the workforce. Before the Black Death, wages were low due to overpopulation, but as the workforce reduced, laborers had more tools and land to work with, thus becoming more productive as individuals. As such, they could demand more for their services, and servile peasants were able to bargain for better conditions. Desperate for labor, the lords had little choice but to accede to demands from the peasantry.In the years that followed, lords found themselves in diminished circumstances, and the sense of the traditional hierarchy was challenged. Many peasants were able to become property owners. Fearing the changing social fabric, governments took conservative measures and attempted to enact price controls on wages. This caused pushback from the peasants, and the ruling lords faced the prospect of revolt.Medieval farming. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe reduced size of the workforce and the increased wages also caused a shift in agriculture. Sheep farming was less intensive than grain farming and required fewer laborers, and as such, it became a pragmatic alternative. Nevertheless, reduced production and loss of life disrupted trade across the continent, as well as long-distance trade routes to and from the east.Ultimately, the Black Death created a series of events that eventually led to much better living conditions for the lower classes, which can be considered a foundation for the rise of the middle class. It also resulted in a challenge to autocratic power as governments were pressured to maintain pre-existing hierarchies, and were threatened by a more powerful working class.Societal ChangesDeath came for the rich as well as the poor. Source: needpix.comThe bubonic plague led to massive reconfigurations within the societal fabric across Europe. Of note is the role of the Church, which featured significantly in the day-to-day lives of Medieval Europe. As the horror of the Black Death unfolded, many questioned their confidence in the Church. While it seems faith in Christianity endured, the consequence was a loss of respect for the religious institutions that had guided Europeans for centuries.Of course, the people of the church were affected too. Clergymen died and were replaced by less experienced members. Meanwhile, heretical movements such as the flagellants sprang up, in flagrant violation of the Churchs authority.While many people turned towards God, there were many who became nihilistic and embraced a hedonistic lifestyle. Violence and debauchery increased. The birth rate also increased, but this did little to offset the effect on the population from the massive mortality rate inflicted by the plague. Although the initial wave abated in the early 1350s, there were successive, less deadly waves in the decades that followed.Across Europe, children were orphaned, and the marriage rate increased as men and women sought company and solace after the death of their loved ones. In many instances, husbands and fathers were the main or only source of income for a family, and the loss of such a figure generated financial challenges for widows and their children.The Dance of Death (1493) by Michael Wolgemut, from the Nuremberg Chronicle of Hartmann Schedel. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Black Death also had a profound effect on arts and culture. Morbid themes became far more common, and indeed the norm after 1350, reflecting the changing worldview of society at the time. The danse macabre or the dance of death became a popular theme in the arts. It depicted dancing skeletons choosing victims from all walks of life, mimicking the plagues lack of discrimination.Life after the Black Death, however, wasnt all doom and gloom. For the lower classes, at least, the situation in the decades following the Black Death was an improvement. The price of land decreased, while peasants wages increased, and their chances for social mobility improved. Serfdom almost completely disappeared. These changes, however, werent immediate, and there were significant pushes back and forth, as the nobility and the peasantry readjusted their relationship.The Black Death was a major catalyst for societal change. Society didnt completely collapse, but underwent huge shifts in power dynamics. From a social perspective, the disaster was a traumatic event that left an indelible mark on European culture as a whole, and this is reflected in the art that was produced at the time. These novel depictions could be seen as a mass coping mechanism for dealing with the horror.A Modern DangerThe interconnectedness of the modern world makes it easier for pandemics to spread. Source: pexels.comIt is believed that the Black Death killed somewhere in the region of up to 100 million people across Eurasia and North Africa. Some estimates even put it as high as 200 million. To scale it up to a modern context, it would be roughly the equivalent of 1 to 2 billion people today (possibly even more). Numbers are difficult to define and determine in this context because of the lack of records from the time period, as well as the doubt thrown on various epidemics as to whether they were indeed bubonic plague.While the exact effects of a pandemic on this scale are hard to quantify, it is reasonable to assume the general socio-economic and cultural effects would be the same. Established systems would collapse, and the labor force would gain more bargaining power. Confidence in existing structures would also decline, and worldviews would be altered.Quick responses from government agencies and the medical profession are necessary in mitigating the spread of infectious diseases. Source: iStockCenturies of medical progress have, however, mitigated much of the danger. COVID-19, while a pandemic of major concern, was nowhere near as deadly as the Black Death, and in most cases, governmental safety measures enacted were successful in containing the disease. That is not to say, however, that a deadlier pandemic could not be around the corner.Were this to become a reality, society would undeniably go through massive shifts as power dynamics are redressed in response to the massive loss of life and the reduction of the worlds labor force. The Black Death and the after-effects tell a story of societies adapting to changes. While some places were completely abandoned, and whole villages struck down, ultimately, human beings survived and went on with their lives. Some people took advantage of new opportunities and improved their status, while others fought against inevitable change. This is a tale as old as time.As always, human beings respond in much the same way as they have in the past. In the event of a huge pandemic on a relative scale equaling the Black Death, many people would look to higher authorities for answers, while others would turn to crime and hedonistic activities in an attempt to cope with the depressing reality of their impending doom. As the disease struck down millions, fear would be commonplace, and humans would respond in ways that mimicked how humans responded in the past.

A Prayer for God to Give You Compassion for Your Enemies - Your Daily Prayer - July 17A Prayer for God to Give You Compassion for Your EnemiesBy Jaime HamptonBible Reading:“You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you,  that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his...

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