Karen Bass is the Mayor of Los Angeles. However, in addition to her problems with doing her job well, she seems to have difficulty with basic concepts of government. Advertisement Here she was on

This Hidden Dockside Gem In Milwaukee Is A Local Foodie Favorite Milwaukee, Wisconsin is famous for its beer, cheese, bratwurst, soft pretzels, cream puffs, and frozen custard, but its culinary scene extends far past these symbols of comfort...

The Celtic Revival, which began in 19th-century Ireland, was a resurgence of popular interest in a variety of Celtic and medieval Irish traditions, including art, language, and mythology. The movement held great significance for Irish art history and archaeology, as well as for the preservation of the Gaelic language. Renewed interest in Irelands past during this period was a direct catalyst for the reintroduction of Gaelige (Irish language) in primary and secondary school curricula in the Republic of Ireland. But what exactly happened during the Celtic Revival, and why?When Was the Celtic Revival?The Riders of the Sidhe, by John Duncan, 1911. Source: Dundee Art Galleries and Museum CollectionThe Celtic Revival took place during the 19th and 20th centuries. The various movements that made up the Revival took place primarily in Ireland. However, there was also significant interest in the Celtic Revival in England, particularly among the English aristocracy.The Celtic Revival and interest in Britain and Irelands pagan past had precedent as early as the 12th century. This is when Geoffrey of Monmouth, a medieval Welsh cleric famous for his contributions to British historiography and the development of the tales of King Arthur, wrote his History of the Kings of Britain. This text, though largely inaccurate, traced Britains noble and glorious roots to the pagan Bronze Age.Scholarly interest in the Celtic past began to pick up in the 16th and 17th centuries with the publishing of George Buchanans Rerum Scoticarum Historia and William Camdens Britannia, as well as the emergence of visual depictions of Britains ancient people by John White and Theodor de Bry. An increase in archaeological excavations and inquiry took place in Britain in the 18th century, and this interest spread to Ireland by the early to mid-19th century.Political Conditions Surrounding the Celtic RevivalSeachtmhain na Gaedhilge, broadside poster by Frances Georgiana and Chenevix Trench, 1913, Dublin, Ireland. Source: National Library of IrelandWhile the Celtic Revival had a great influence on art and literature, it was also a politically charged nationalist movement. The 19th century has often been called the age of nationalism. Inspired by the French Revolution, many countries, particularly in Europe, underwent nationalist movements that emphasized looking back to the past, the pursuit of and return to the nations roots, independence, and self-government in accordance with the way ancestors governed themselves.One reason that the Celtic Revival took root so strongly in Ireland was because of the countrys history of being subjugated under British rule. England first invaded Ireland in 1169, and by the early 18th century, nearly a third of Irelands population were either immigrants or their descendants. English colonists brought the English language, fashions, and commercialism to Ireland, whilst simultaneously outlawing Irish language, dress, and agricultural, social, and cultural practices. At the same time, the Irish people were subject to racism and dehumanization in British media during this period.It should be noted that Ireland did not gain independence from Britain until 1921, when the Anglo-Irish treaty split Ireland into the sovereign Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, which is retained by the United Kingdom.The rediscovery of art and other traces of Irelands Celtic and early medieval past, which was considered a golden age of their history when Ireland was ruled by its legendary High Kings, was, therefore, very attractive for 19th-century Irish historians, archaeologists, and antiquarians. These discoveries aided in the development of Irish historiography, which emphasized a return to Irish traditions that had been wiped out by British colonization and occupation.However, the aristocracy and upper class in Victorian England, particularly Queen Victoria, took an interest in the archaeological discoveries coming out of Ireland and popularized wearing reproductions of the art. Why? As discussed above, British historiographers had a long history of assimilating a Celtic past into their own roots, as there were several Celtic tribes that lived in Britain. The Celts, their customs, art styles, and religious practices, were also fundamentally seen as a part of Britains history. Therefore, as important as the Celtic Revival movement was for Irish history and culture, the rediscovery and reproduction of these objects were popularized in Britain for very different reasons.Art During the Celtic RevivalReproduction of the Ardagh Chalice, c. early 20th century, Ireland. Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtA major aspect of the Celtic Revival movement was art production. Two major trends in artmaking during this period were reproductions, which were objects designed to look like the early medieval artworks rediscovered through archaeological excavations, and art inspired by Celtic history, mythology, and symbolism. Some of the most famous direct reproductions of early medieval art during the Celtic Revival include copies of the 8th-century Tara Brooch and copies of the Ardagh Chalice, believed to have been made during the 8th or 9th century.The Tara Brooch, c. 7th/8th century CE, County Meath, Ireland. Source: National Museum of IrelandThe Tara Brooch and its reproductions encapsulate the spirit and nationalist fervor of the Celtic Revival movement. Its discovery acted as a partial catalyst for the movement in Ireland. A woman and her child discovered it on a beach in Bettystown, County Meath, in 1850. They brought it to Dublin jeweler George Waterhouse, who gave it the name Tara after the Hill of Tara, the legendary seat of the High Kings of Ireland, tapping into a mythologized aspect of Irelands past. He then began to produce reproductions of the brooch, which were sold amongst elite members of Irish and British society. Queen Victoria owned multiple Tara Brooch reproductions, and the wearing of such brooches became a fashion trend in Victorian England.Tara Brooch Reproduction, by Waterhouse & Co., 1851, Dublin, Ireland. Source: Victoria & Albert MuseumArtworks inspired by the pagan Celtic past include John Duncans The Riders of the Sidhe (1911) and George Henry and Edward Atkinson Hornels The Druids: Bringing in the Mistletoe (1890). Paintings like these played into the Revivals Romantic reconstruction of the ancient past, utilizing a color palette reminiscent of medieval insular manuscripts and recognizable iconography such as serpentine imagery and spiraling triskele symbols from Celtic art. These paintings mythologize the past, depicting it as an ethereal time filled with magic and glory.Literature During the Celtic RevivalThe Druids: Bringing in the Mistletoe, by George Henry and Edward Atkinson Hornel, 1890. Source: Glasgow Life MuseumsAnother important aspect of the Celtic Revival was the literature produced in Ireland. Celtic Revival literature is notable for its references to Gaelic history and folklore. The most notable literary figure from the Celtic Revival and a huge contributor to the movement as a whole was William Butler Yeats. Popularly known as W.B. Yeats, his 1893 work The Celtic Twilight, which gave the Revival its nickname, was a collection of lore and reminiscences from the west of Ireland. Some of his most famous poems include The Second Coming, The Lake Isle of Innisfree, and Easter, 1916. In 1892, Yeats established both the Irish Literary Society in London and the National Literary Society in Dublin.Some of Yeats contemporaries include Douglas Hyde, John Millington Synge, and George William Russell. Yeats, alongside Lady Gregory and Edward Martyn, also made strides in establishing a national theatre for Ireland in 1899 with the founding of the Irish Literary Theatre. In 1903 Yeats, Lady Gregory, Russell, Martyn, and Synge collaborated in founding the Irish National Theatre Society, which coalesced in the establishment of the Abbey Theatre the following year. The Abbey Theatre remains an important cultural institution in Ireland today.The Great Exhibition of 1851Interior of the Crystal Palace during the Great Exhibition of 1851, London, England. Source: Historic UKCoinciding with the nationalist fervor that swept Europe during the 19th century, Prince Albert, along with public record keeper Henry Cole, organized the worlds first international exhibition. The Great Exhibition of Products of Industry of All Nations, often abbreviated as the Great Exhibition or Londons Great Exhibition, was held at Joseph Paxtons Crystal Palace in Hyde Park in the summer of 1851. The Crystal Palace was an architectural feat and offered 990,000 square feet of exhibition space. The event ran from May to October of that year and saw around six million visitors.The Great Exhibition was meant to celebrate world industry, showcasing works from all over the world. The exhibits included artwork, ironwork, furniture, firearms, steam hammers, hydraulic presses, and more. However, the Great Exhibition ended up placing far more of an emphasis on British manufacturing, as more than 100,000 of the exhibits were from Britain or the British Empire.With the onset of archaeological discoveries and the incorporation of Celtic Revival styles in fashion and jewelry, furniture, and more at the time, the Revival movement was represented at the Crystal Palace. The Tara Brooch and several Waterhouse reproductions were exhibited there, alongside other key objects. The Great Exhibition prompted a slew of Worlds Fairs throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and Celtic Revival objects were similarly represented at the Great Exhibition in Dublin in 1853. With her interest in brooch reproductions already established, Queen Victoria was presented with a copy of the 9th-century Cavan Brooch, the Queens Brooch, at the Dublin Exhibition.These exhibitions were highly impactful for the artists and antiquarians who attended them. The influence of the exhibition of Celtic and early medieval antiquities soon became evident, particularly in Irish sculpture.Cultural Impact of the Celtic RevivalStained glass window at St. Cathal Cathedral, c. 19th century, Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the Celtic Revival thrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, its impact had a long tail, reverberating into modern-day popular perceptions of the Celtic and medieval periods. Modern interest in using Celtic imagery to speak to Irish ancestral ties through tattooing is one such example.The movement certainly had its most significant impact in Ireland, where the reintroduction of the Irish language into school curricula revitalized the languages use after it had been forced out under British rule. According to the 2022 census in Ireland, approximately 40% of the population over the age of three say that they can speak Irish. The Celtic Revival as it took place in Ireland, in short, led to a reclamation of an Irish past that had been partially lost after centuries of conquest and colonization.Boadicea and Her Daughters, by Thomas Thornycroft, 1893, London, England. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Revivals impact was also felt in Britain, as it led to the integration of ancient Celtic history into more popularly accepted versions of Britains past, as well as the introduction and valorization of Celtic figures like Boudica as national heroes. There, the movement added to a complex project of British historiographic work that had roots as far back as the medieval period. The Celtic Revival, therefore, had a strong hand in Irish and British nationalism and shaped modern Irish and British perceptions of their historical roots.

In an age when the exercise of power was largely personal rather than corporate, the machinations of and rivalry between three great monarchs (Charles V, Henry VIII, Francis I) could and did have an enormous impact on the events of the time. Nearly every war, alliance, scandal, or land swap that occurred in Western Europe in the first half of the 16th century involved some combination of these three men. Here we will take a look at a few of these interactions.Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of SpainCharles V at Muhlberg, by Titian, 1548. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBorn in 1500 to Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad, Charles V would grow up to inherit a vast and diverse congeries of land, unparalleled in European history, including the Netherlands, Spain, various territories in Italy, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas.After being elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 (the votes for which cost him a staggering amount of money), he controlled lands and resources on a scale far beyond any other monarch in Europe, perhaps rivalled only by the Ottoman sultan. However, these far-flung holdings involved him in nearly every political situation that developed in Europe during his reign, and his machinations involved nearly every other ruler of the age on some level.His main rival was Francis I of France, against whom he fought in Italy during the Italian Wars and elsewhere. He had no scruples about allying with Henry VIII of England against France or thwarting Henrys ambitions as it suited his needs. But despite the seemingly endless political intrigues in which he was engaged, Charles always saw himself as the rightful defender of Christian Europe, whether against heretic Protestants or the infidel Ottomans.Charles and HenrySack of Rome in 1527, by Johannes Lingelbach, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn August 1521, just over a year after Henry VIII and Francis I had so grandiosely expressed their eternal amity at the Field of the Cloth of Gold (see below), Charles V and Henry VIII signed a secret anti-French alliance known as the Treaty of Bruges. The terms of this agreement required Charles and Henry to commit significant military forces, both on land and at sea, to a joint attack on Francis I no later than 1523. To further cement the alliance, Charles was to marry Henrys daughter, Mary (as this did not come to pass, however, Charless son Philip eventually did marry Mary).Although England did engage in some small-scale military activity in France, the joint invasion never came to fruition. After France was soundly defeated at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and Francis found himself the prisoner of Charles (see below), Henry became worried about Charless seemingly unstoppable successes. The balance of power was becoming unbalanced. After Franciss release from imprisonment under the terms of the Treaty of Madrid (1526), he quickly set about forming an alliance against Charles, which became known as the League of Cognac.Although Henry did not join the League, he did give it his tacit approval and went on to formally ally with France against Charles after the sack of Rome by Imperial troops in 1527. The back-and-forth nature of these machinations would characterize relations between Charles V and Henry VIII throughout their reigns.Charles and FrancisThe Battle of Mohacs 1526, Bertalan Szekely, 1866. Source: Hungarian National GalleryIn September 1544, after a joint assault on France by Charles V and Henry VIII (they were once again on good terms), the Treaty of Crpy was signed by Franis I and Charles V. Francis agreed to vast territorial concessions, but Charles also agreed to return the significant gains he had made on French soil.One might ask why Charles, after decades of intermittent warfare against Francis, would give up such prizes. However, Charles, consistent with his self-image as protector of Christendom, had a two-fold purpose in agreeing to the treaty. Firstly, he sought to unite the Christian kingdoms of Europe against the growing power of the Ottomans, who had been steadily advancing in Hungary (especially after the Battle of Mohacs in 1526) and the Balkans. A weakened and hostile France could not be counted on for support against the Ottoman Empire.Secondly, peace with France freed Charless hands to deal with the spread of Protestantism in his German-speaking lands (Protestantism had never spread very widely in Spain). In the treaty, Francis also agreed to aid Charles in the suppression of heresy. This suited Francis as well, as Protestantism, especially Calvinism, was already making serious inroads in predominantly Catholic France. Thus, Charles found ways of dealing with Francis which, at least theoretically, balanced his various interests and ambitions.Francis I, King of FrancePortrait of Francis I, King of France, by Jean Clouet, 1525-30. Source: RKD ImagesFrancis I, cousin of the previous king, Louis XIII, ascended to the throne of France in 1515, at the age of 21. Before Charles V accumulated his vast territories in the following years, Francis could rightly claim to be king of the most powerful realm in western Europe. A military man of action with a head full of chivalric ideals, he enthusiastically dove into the Italian Wars, which had raged intermittently since 1494, winning a stunning victory at Marignano in his first year on the throne. However, he could also be quite Machiavellian, as evinced by his scandalous alliance with the Ottoman Turks, when he went so far as to allow an Ottoman fleet to use a French port.Franciss primary enemy throughout his reign was Charles V, whose lands nearly surrounded France. But he could never ignore the threat from the north either, as Henry VIII of England saw Francis as his primary enemy.Francis and HenryMary Queen of Scots, 1542-1587, ca. 1610-1615. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs was the case with several of his royal forbears, one of Francis Is main strategies for dealing with England was to force the English to look both south and north by allying with and supporting Scotland, Englands traditional enemy. This was accomplished primarily through marriage alliances revolving around the powerful Guise family.In 1537, Mary of Lorraine (Guise) married King James V of Scotland, tying Scotland closer to France. Their child, Mary (Queen of Scots), inherited the Scottish crown, making her an extremely valuable asset to both Francis I and Henry VIII. The Treaty of Greenwich (1543) between England and Scotland stipulated that Mary would marry Henrys son Edward. However, when the Scots repudiated this agreement, it led to England laying waste to the lowlands in what became known as The Rough Wooing.Mary was eventually brought to France, where she was raised at court, marrying Francis Is grandson, Francis, who became King Francis II in 1559, making Mary queen of both Scotland and France. Franciss plans to bring France and Scotland into a lasting alliance ultimately came to naught, as Francis II lived less than a year as king, and upon her return to Scotland, Mary wasted little time in alienating her subjects, ultimately resulting in her flight to and imprisonment in England.Francis and CharlesBattle of Pavia, after 1525. Source: RKD ImagesAt the Battle of Pavia in 1525, France suffered perhaps its worst defeat since the Battle of Agincourt over 100 years earlier. This was another battle in what came to be known as the Italian Wars (1494-1559), which were fought primarily between the French Valois dynasty and the German/Spanish Habsburg dynasty.The Battle of Pavia was particularly disastrous for the Frenchbeyond the sheer loss of life, including many noblesbecause Francis I himself was taken prisoner. Initially imprisoned in Italy, he was eventually transferred to Spain, where Charles V pressured him to accept crippling terms in order to secure his release. Ultimately, Francis agreed to Charless terms in the Treaty of Madrid in January 1526. France was to renounce its claim to various lands, especially in Burgundy, as well as a slew of other stipulations. To guarantee Franciss good faith, two of his sons would be held captive by Charles V until the treaty was ratified in France.However, upon returning to France, Francis wasted no time in repudiating the terms, leading to the absurd situation wherein Emperor Charles actually challenged Francis to a duel as a matter of honor. By releasing Francis before the terms of the treaty were fulfilled, Charles missed an opportunity to perhaps bring the Italian Wars to a much earlier conclusion. But one of Franciss sons, the future King Henry II, never forgot his time as Charless prisoner and bore a grudge until the emperors death.Henry VIII, King of EnglandPortrait of Henry VIII of England, by Joos van Cleeve, ca. 1532-1535. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough associated in the popular imagination mostly with his six wives and their varying fates, there is much more to the story of Henry VIII. Neither destined nor educated to be king (his brother Arthur was heir to the throne until his untimely death in 1502), Henry VIII succeeded to the English throne in April of 1509, becoming only the second king of the Tudor Dynasty, created after Henrys father, Henry VII, defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth and subsequently married Elizabeth of York, thus uniting the houses of York and Lancaster and (it was intended) ending the Wars of the Roses.Henry VIII was aware, as was his father, that the Tudor Dynasty was still on shaky ground and that at any moment another claimant to the throne could appear and launch a campaign to usurp the kingship. He was also aware that of the three great monarchs of the time, he ruled over the weakest kingdom, and thus strove to strengthen England (especially its navy) and to insert himself, often as a sort of wild card, into the power politics of the continent.Henry and FrancisThe Field of the Cloth of Gold, Unknown artist (British School), ca. 1545. Source: The Royal CollectionBy far the most famous event involving Henry VIII and Francis I has gone down in history as the Field of the Cloth of Gold. For over two weeks in June of 1520, Henry and Francis, as well as most of their courts, met at a field outside of Calais for an unthinkably expensive series of tournaments, banquets, and entertainment, intended by both monarchs to overawe and impress the other with their magnificence. The number of tents bedecked with cloth of gold gave the event its name, and also gives an idea of its lavishness.The two kings sought to outdo each other in chivalric courtesy, gift-giving, praising each others qualities, and generally showing off their extreme wealth. Promises were made of eternal amity between the two, even though Henry was already negotiating an alliance with Charles Vthe archenemy of Francisand Francis was already scheming to renew and strengthen the auld alliance between France and ScotlandHenrys enemy to the north.In less than two years, England and France were once again at war, but the legendary extravagance of the Field of the Cloth of Gold is remembered as one of the most iconic events of the 16th century.Henry and CharlesPortrait of Katherine of Aragon, ca. 1520. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough Henry VIII played no role in the Imperial sack of Rome in 1527, the event had indirect but serious repercussions for England. The unplanned attack on Rome by Charles Vs army put Pope Clement VII firmly under the power and influence of Charles. The timing of this could not have been worse for Henry, who soon sought a way to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, so that he could marry his new favorite, Anne Boleyn. Only the pope could grant such a dispensation (which was not unheard of). However, Catharine of Aragon was the aunt of Charles V and, not wanting to see his aunt abandoned and also not wanting to offend his Spanish subjects, Charles used his influence over Pope Clement VII to ensure that the divorce did not occur.With no option left within the church, Henry took the drastic step of separating England from Rome, thus securing his much-desired divorce and laying the foundations for the autonomous Church of England. Thus Charles V was unintentionally a major contributor to Henrys break from Rome (which would have horrified Charles if he could have seen the future).Impact on the Rest of the 16th CenturyThe Empire of Charles V, c. 1544. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe political maneuverings of Charles V, Francis I, and Henry VIII set the stage for the second half of the 16th century. Francis I and Henry VIII both died in 1547, and Charles V died in 1558 after abdicating in 1556. The Italian Wars, which had consumed so much of Charless and Franciss time and resources, finally came to an end with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559. When Charles abdicated in 1556, his lands and titles were divided between his son, who became King Philip II of Spain, and his brother Ferdinand, who became Holy Roman Emperor.France would be plagued by religious strife for much of the rest of the century. After Henry VIIIs death, England had its own share of religious strife as the pendulum between Catholicism and Protestantism swung back and forth during the short-lived reigns of Mary I (Bloody Mary) and Edward VI, before stability was gradually reestablished during the reign of Elizabeth I.The pattern of secret treaties and shifting alliances that typified the era of Charles V, Francis I, and Henry VIII would continue throughout the 16th century and into the next, right up until 1618 and the outbreak of the Thirty Years War, which would drastically reshape the European political landscape.

The Sengoku Jidai was by far the most turbulent period in Japanese history. The country was split into dozens of separate domains. Various daimyo had their own ideas on how to rule the country and were willing to wage war for it. Some, like Hattori Hanzo Masanari, would be in command of shinobi and would help the up-and-coming Tokugawa clan to stabilize the chaos of the time. His skill and the exploits associated with the shinobi made him the subject of hundreds of stories and rumors. So who was the real Hattori Hanzo and why was he such an influential figure in history?Iga: Home of the HattoriIga: Sixty-Odd Provinces, by Utagawa Hiroshige, 1853. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgThe Hattori historically made their home in Iga province, an especially mountainous and forested expanse of land that was often difficult for larger armies to traverse. Therefore, Iga was an almost independent province. As a loose confederation of peasants, the province was considered a threat by its neighbors who felt it might give rise to widespread unrest similar to how the Ikko-ikki were operating, possibly undermining samurai rule.The relative inaccessibility of Iga allowed the ninjas to have bases of operation and training there; many hidden forest and mountain communities served this purpose. Some samurai, in an effort to increase their effectiveness for their daimyo, sought training (or were ordered to seek training) in the arts of ninjutsu. This leads us to Hattori Hanzo Masanari, the archetypal shinobi-samurai hybrid.Hattori Hanzos TrainingNinja, by Utagawa Kunisada, 1830. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgAlthough Hattori Hanzo was trained in the conventional fighting arts of the samurai (fencing, archery, horseback riding, etc.) during his ample time in Iga, he picked up some more unconventional tactics, such as nighttime movement, guerilla tactics, and espionage. He would use these tactics, as well as his knowledge of Igas terrain, to help Tokugawa Ieyasu on several occasions.When Hattori Hanzo was young, he trained and studied at a Jodo Shinsu (True Pure Land) Buddhist temple. There is little historical evidence to show exactly who trained Hanzo (various fanciful accounts describe him as being taught by tengu, or mountain spirits), but this is a situation that happens frequently in Japanese martial arts folklore. Rather than being seen as deviating from the social norms of the time, many teachers who developed tactics out of the ordinary passed their knowledge off as being divinely inspired, lending an air of legitimacy, especially if they went into seclusion to hone their skills.Hostage Rescue at Kaminogo and Servitude to the TokugawaTokugawa Ieyasu, by Kano Tan Yu, early Edo Period. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Hattori clan hailed from Iga, their ancestral lands but during the time of Hattori Hanzos lifespan, they lived in Mikawa, serving as retainers to the Tokugawaformerly called the Matsudairaclan. One of the first actions that earned him the trust of Tokugawa Ieyasu was his valor at the Siege of Kaminogo Castle.At the time, the Tokugawa clan was under the control of the Imagawa clan, though with their defeat at the hands of Oda Nobunaga at Okehazama, they were significantly weakened. To secure the Matsudaira clans allegiance, they took several daughters and other family members hostage.Hanzo took a small group of Iga ninjas and obtained clothing to match the uniforms of the guards at the gate, bearing a lantern with the mon (clan symbol) of the occupying general, Udono Nagateru, who was a vassal of the newly-fractured Imagawa. The guards, rather than verifying the identity of the men, allowed Hanzo and his group through the castle gates, where they spread out and started small fires, which quickly spread.Most Japanese buildings were made of wood, which meant that any fires had to be put out as soon as possible. During the confusion, Hanzos group was able to locate and escort the hostages to safety, helping to free Tokugawa from the demands of the Imagawa.Anegawa and MikatagaharaBattle of Mikatagahara, by Toyohara Chikanobu, 1886. Source: Ukiyo-e.org.Hanzo, as mentioned, was a samurai who fought in several open battles, the most famous of which were Anegawa and Mikatagahara. These two battles are known for having helped Tokugawa solidify his power base. The Battle of Anegawa marked the first time that the two daimyo had fought alongside one another. Tokugawa had always been known as a patient commander; he almost never committed his forces fully as some of his contemporaries did. Tokugawa did not enter the battle until later because it was speculated that Hanzo was attempting to scout a clear route for the advance of the army. It is said that he fought valiantly to keep Ieyasu alive.The Battle of Mikatagahara in 1573 saw a decisive defeat for Ieyasu at the hands of Takeda Shingen. Takedas forces converged upon Ieyasus position, and he was forced to retreat to Hamamatsu Castle and endure a siege. Hattori Hanzo once again demonstrated his penchant for nighttime attacks, taking a force of 30 Iga shinobi (ninja) and harassing the advancing Takeda forces using guerilla tactics and delaying their advance.Hanzos exploits, many of which are mentioned in the Kansei Choshu Shokafu revolved around asymmetrical warfare, and many of his supposed supernatural powers were the result of clever misdirection and striking at the opportune time. As it stood, Hanzos actions were able to give Tokugawa the advantage against numerically superior forces.Escort to MikawaIga no Yuki (Snow of Iga), by Nishijima Katsuyuki. Source: Ukiyo-eHanzos most well-known and arguably most important service to Ieyasu took place after the assassination of Oda Nobunaga at the hands of Akechi Mitsuhide. In 1582, at Honno-ji, Mitsuhide launched an attack as vengeance for Nobunagas massacre of the Buddhist population, and Nobunaga retired to a back room of the temple to commit seppuku. Mitsuhides plan was to then eradicate Nobunagas surviving supporters.At the time, Ieyasu was in Sakai province with a small group of companions, Hanzo among them, dangerously close to Mitsuhides position. Rather than face capture and likely execution, he chose to retreat to his home province of Mikawa.Because of how quickly they needed to act, Hanzo suggested that the group travel through Iga. It was the shortest path to Mikawa, but fraught with peril. The Iga had been the target of one of Nobunagas purges and were hostile to any outsiders for the most part. So-called samurai hunting gangs or ochimusha-gari took refuge in the forests and mountains, waylaying any samurai they encountered, taking their gear, and killing them.Hanzo and a small group of Iga men loyal to him escorted the Tokugawa retinue through the mountain passes of Iga up to the borders of Mikawa. Hanzo would serve Ieyasu in several other important engagements, including the Siege of Odawara against the Hojo and the Battle of Nagakute against Toyotomi Hideyoshi.Shinobi no Hiden, Hanzos Manual of NinjutsuSketch of Ninja Climbing Down Rope, Hokusai-Katsushika, 1817. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough ninjutsu is a secretive art, to say the least, there are three comprehensive manuals on their various teachings and experiences: Bansenshukai, Shoninki, and Shinobi no Hiden. The last one was written by someone named Hattori Hanzo. Separated into five volumes, it has varying dates of commonly accepted authorship, but the most commonly accepted one is sometime in 1560. Hanzo Masanari would have been studying ninjutsu and in the thick of fighting battles for the then-Matsudaira at this time, around the age of 18. However, because the Hattori clan passed the name Hanzo down, it is likely equally to have been penned by his father Hattori Yasunaga.The first volume is an introduction, listing an account of how the shinobi originated in China and later came to Japan, along with a list of tools and techniques, but no elaboration. The second volume contains illustrations of shinobi tools such as fire-carrying devices, lockpicks, and even a diagram for a primitive diving helmet, but there is no documented use of the last.The third volume explains the use of the various tools and the fourth volume deals with the more social aspects of infiltration, or the yo-nin skillset such as finding potential informants. Finally, the fifth volume tells what skills shinobi should practice in peace and in war.The Fate of Hattori HanzoSainen-ji, the Burial Site of Hattori Hanzo. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHattori Hanzo Masanari led a life shrouded in secrecy and intrigue befitting a legendary shinobitrained general. The exact circumstances of his death are also heavily disputed with some saying that he died in a naval battle at the hands of rival shinobi clan leader Fuuma Kotaro. Although the Fuuma shinobi were experts in naval tactics, the anecdotal tales tell that there was a battle between the two in the Seto Inland Sea.However, Hanzo at the time was said to have been living a monastic life at Sainen-ji. The temple, located in Tokyo, was one he had built to honor the memory of Ieyasus son Nobuyasu, who had been ordered to commit seppuku by Ieyasu as a show of loyalty to Oda Nobunaga.Hanzo is said to have died in 1597 at the age of 54 from illness, but no public sources specify the nature of that illness. The Iga shinobi who served under Hanzo were appointed as the guardians of Edo Castle, where the Tokugawa shogunate was headquartered and later became the capital of the country. Hanzo himself was buried at Sainenji.

Born James Charles Stuart, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, King James inherited the Scottish throne from his mother when she was forced to abdicate on July 24, 1567. He was only an infant when this dramatic life turn took place. Through a convoluted set of circumstances resulting from his English uncle Henry VIIIs various marriages and lack of heirs, James would inherit the English throne on March 24, 1603 from Henry VIIIs daughter Elizabeth I. However, the two kingdoms would remain separate entities with separate governments, effectively making two rulers out of one person, a combination known as a personal union. Thus, he became King James VI of Scotland, and King James I of England.King James Views on GoverningCover of The True Law of Free Monarchies. Source: WikimediaPut simply, James I believed he had absolute authority as king. James believed he ruled under the divine right of kings, holding an authority derived directly from God rather than the consent of the people. He wrote a pamphlet in 1598 called The True Law of Free Monarchies where he defends his theories on grounds of Biblical arguments, the laws of the kingdom, and natural law:First then, I will set downe the trew grounds, whereupon I am to build, out of the Scriptures, since Monarchie is the trew paterne of Diuinitie, as I haue already said: next, from the fundamental Lawes of our owne Kingdome, which nearest must concerne vs: thirdly, from the law of Nature, by diuers similitudes drawne out of the same: and will conclude syne by answering the most waighty and appearing incommodities that can be obiected.James VI of Scotland and James I of England, by Jacob Jacobsz De Wet II, 1684 1686 CE. Source: The Royal Collection TrustWhile James did believe in being able to rule, he also held that such rulership bore a great responsibility. He would write another treatise in 1599 intended for his sons called the Basilikon Doron, meaning royal gift, laying out what he saw as the responsibilities of the king toward his subjects. James viewed Parliament as sort of a lower court, where he could overrule their decisions, and only summoned the English Parliament once a few times, each time being contentious and soon dissolved.King James Position on ReligionProtestant pro-iconoclasm print, the Netherlands, 1566. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEven amidst the Protestant reformation, James still held that he was the head of the Church of England as established by Henry VIII. He believed he had the authority to appoint Bishops and set the rules and regulations for both the Church of England and the Church of Scotland, and pushed back against the independence that the Church of Scotland had acquired before his rule.Etching of Guy Fawkes and conspirator executions in Old Palace Yard by Claes Jansz Visscher, 1606. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonOn Roman Catholicism, James generally opposed it, particularly after the Gunpowder Plot where catholic supporters in 1605 tried to blow up the House of Lords when James was in attendance. He expelled Catholic priests from England and generally suppressed Catholicism within England when he could.King James I and VI: The New Bible1611 King James Bible frontispiece. Source: St Georges ChapelIn 1611 King James ordered new translations of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, at a time when revised translations of ancient texts were widespread as a means of political propaganda. It is interesting to note that the translators, with few exceptions, of the new Bible were all members of the Church of England, and none from the Church of Scotland.

In Portugal, the Knights Templar left a remarkable legacy, impacting the countrys history, architecture, and religion. In this article, you will learn how such a secretive religious order helped shape the future of a new kingdom and how they benefited from the kings unwavering support. Most importantly, you will find a list of the best locations to explore the Knights Templar legacy in Portugal.How and Why Did the Knights Templar Come to Portugal?Knights Templar Seal, by Thomas Andrew Arches and Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, Public Domain. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ (famously known as Knights Templar) were founded in 1118 in the aftermath of the First Crusade. Their purpose was to protect and safely escort Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land. The knights took vows of poverty, chastity, devotion, and obedience. The Knights Templar relied on donations to help them fulfill their mission across the Holy Land.The ReconquistaKing Afonso Henriques statue in Guimares, photo by Vitor Oliveira. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe first records of the Knights Templars presence in Portuguese territory date back to 1128, several years before the foundation of the Kingdom of Portugal. At the time, Countess Teresa of Condado Portucalense (mother of Portugals future first king) donated Soure Castle to the Knights Templar. With this donation, the countess helped the Knights Templars cause while simultaneously protecting the countys borders from the Moors.During this period, the Condado Portucalense faced serious political tensions following the death of Count Henry. Countess Teresa, with the support of Galician nobleman and lover Fernando Pres de Traba, intended to be named the independent queen of Condado Portucalense. However, Afonso Henriques rebelled against his mother. With the support of the Portuguese nobility and clergy, the young prince defeated her mothers army in the Battle of So Mamede.Nevertheless, Afonso Henriques recognized the donations made by her mother to the Knights Templar. It was his way of involving the Order in his war efforts against the Moors.Over the years, the Order grew in Portugal due to the increasing number of recruits and territories bought or received as a donation. As the Knights Templar became more influential, they continued supporting Afonso Henriques in the Reconquista. In 1144, the Order battled a Moorish alcayde, the castle commander of Santarm, who attacked Soure Castle. Three years later, the Knights Templar helped Afonso Henriques capture Santarm castle in the middle of the night by climbing up its walls with only a handful of men.Gualdim Pais, a Portuguese crusader, Knight Templar, and Knight of King Afonso Henriques, brought in his military experience and helped restore old castles by implementing new military architectural features. The new and refurbished Templar fortifications included keeps, embankments, and wooden palisades protecting the castle walls and towers.Jacques de Molay, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNew lands and territories were added to the newly-founded Kingdom of Portugal as the Reconquista progressed. As a recognition of their efforts, King Afonso Henriques granted the Templars several castles and lands along the Tagus River. Besides protecting the border with the Moors, it was also a way of populating these deserted and pillaged areas by making them safe for commoners. As a result, the Order founded several cities and villages, such as Tomar and Pombal. Eventually, Tomar became the seat of the Order in Portugal. Today, it is one of the best locations to explore the Knights Templar legacy.Between the end of the 12th century and the early 13th century, King Sancho I, son of King Afonso Henriques, continued his fathers work to expel the Moors. He enjoyed the assistance of the Knights Templar in securing the lands south of the Tagus River and into the Algarve region.Since its foundation, the Order had amassed several donations that made them wealthy, despite their poverty vows. The Knights didnt enrich themselves from such donations, and noblemen and royals trusted them to manage their assets. As a result, inadvertently, the Order built one of the earliest bank systems.The Knights Templars New HomeRotunda, from the Convent of Christ, Tomar, photo by Jez Timms. Source: UnsplashDespite the Orders popularity in Portugal in the early 14th century, the Knights Templar faced serious threats outside the Iberian Peninsula. King Philip IV of France was deeply indebted to the Order due to the massive loans he took out over the years.To terminate his financial dependence, he used his influence over Pope Clement V to dissolve the Order and seize all their assets. To do so, King Philip designed a strategy to discredit the Knights Templar by accusing them of heresy, immorality, and several other crimes. As a result, in 1307, several Templars in France were arrested, tortured, and obliged to confess to crimes they never committed. The persecution of the Knights Templar culminated with the Orders extinction in 1312.However, King Dinis I of Portugal had a different idea in mind.In 1306, Pope Clement V ordered an investigation and the confiscation of the Orders assets in the Iberian Peninsula. Instead of obliging immediately, King Dinis followed the Popes orders only after several noblemen and clergymen rose against the Order.Together with King Fernando of Castile and King Jaime II of Aragon, King Dinis signed an agreement against the Vatican in case the Holy See decided to reclaim the Orders assets. Facing such resistance, Pope Clement V ordered the transfer of the Orders assets to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. However, King Dinis saw this proposal as a threat to Portugals independence, considering the seat of this order was in a foreign country. As a counter-proposal, King Dinis suggested the foundation of a new order: the Order of Christ.Order of Christ cross, by Nuno Tavares, 2005. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Order of Christ was made official by a papal bull signed in 1319. King Dinis transferred all castles, properties, and assets from the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ to the Order of Christ. At the time, several Knight Templars joined the new order and kept working more or less the same way as they did before.The Knights Templars expansionist sentiment that supported the Reconquista in the 12th century prompted Prince Henry the Navigator, the Order of Christs Grand Master, to commit to the Portuguese Maritime Expansion in the 15th century.The Order of Christ went extinct in 1910 with the implementation of the Portuguese Republic. A few years later, it was refounded as the Military Order of Christ. Today, this is a Portuguese honorific order whose Grand Master is the President of Portugal.The Templar Legacy1. Tomar CastleTomar Castle, by Oren Rozen, 2016. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCastelo de Tomar is an impressive Templar castle built between 1160 and 1169. Besides housing the seat of the Knights Templars in Portugal, its purpose was to complement the defensive line between Santarm and Coimbra, the kingdoms capital.Gualdim Pais, the Knights Templar Master in Portugal, was the man behind the construction of this new castle. Historians lack information as to why Pais specifically chose this location. However, there are two main theories. The first is that this was a strategic location overlooking the surrounding plains. The second theory relates the castles position to the Paris Meridian, which forms a 34 angle found in other Templar constructions and matches the 2/3 relation seen in the Gemini constellation, one of the Templar symbols.Gualdim Pais founded Tomar and granted it its first charter in 1162 to repopulate the region. In the following years, the Knights Templar built more castles along the Tagus Rivers defensive line.Between the 12th and 13th centuries, Castelo de Tomar faced Moorish troops under the direct orders of the Almohad caliph Abu Iufe Iacube Almanor, who had previously conquered the Algarve region. A deadly battle between the Templars and the Moors resulted in a new name for the castles southern gate: the Blood Gate.Castle founder, Gualdim Pais, Tomar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOnce the last Moors had left the Iberian Peninsula and Portugal consolidated its borders, Castelo de Tomar enjoyed more peaceful days. Following Pope Clement Vs orders to extinguish the Templar Order, Castelo de Tomar was transferred to the Order of Christ founded by King Dinis. Later, in the 14th century, this was the residence of Prince Henry the Navigator.Castelo de Tomar was designed to include the medina, the courtyard, and the Alcazaba (citadel). This last area occupied the highest part of the hill and was divided into a military area (the castle) and a religious area (the ambulatory), which also served as a defensive tower. The ambulatorys design and construction were inspired by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.The castle walls are reinforced by quadrangular and semicircular towers and Roman, Visigothic, and Mozarabic ashlars, reflecting the fast-paced construction works. Inside the patio is the oldest keep in Portugal.Due to its mesmerizing past and astounding military architectural features, Castelo de Tomar has been classified as a National Monument since 1910 and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1983.2. The Convent of Christ, TomarConvento de Cristo, by Alvesgaspar, 2008. Source: Wikimedia CommonsConvento de Cristo is a building complex built between the 12th and 17th centuries, which includes the Castelo de Tomar, the Templar ambulatory, 15th-century cloisters, a Manueline church, and a Renaissance convent.When the Templar Order went extinct, this was one of the buildings transferred to the Order of Christ.The new Order Grand Master, Prince Henry the Navigator, ordered the convent enlargement with two new cloisters and a cemetery. Prince Henry also established his palace over the old Templar military house.At the height of the Portuguese Expansion, King Manuel I ordered the construction of the magnificent Manueline church and decorated the Templar ambulatory with wall paintings, polychrome and gilded wood carvings, and stucco. The artwork inside the ambulatory is the most original and rarest part of the Convento de Cristo. On the western faade of the Manueline church, you can admire the symbolic Manueline Chapter Room Window.Under King Joo IIIs reign, religious reform forced friars to live in cloisters, giving Convento the Cristo the dimensions you see today.Since its construction extended over the centuries, it is possible to find different architectural styles such as Romanic, Gothic, Manueline, Renaissance, and Mannerist. Despite several refurbishments, the Templar ambulatory, the Gothic cloisters, the Manueline Chapter Room Window, and the Renaissance ambulatory dcor remain almost untouched.The Convento de Cristo has been classified as a National Monument since 1910, and as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1983.3. Dornes TowerTorre de Dornes, by Sanrafae, 2020. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1206, D. Pedro Afonso, King Afonso Henriquess son, donated the small village of Dornes to the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ. Shortly after, Gualdim Pais, the Knights Templar Grand Master in Portugal, ordered the construction of a new keep over a pre-existing Roman structure.The pentagonal tower is made of stone masonry, constituting one of the rarest examples of Templar military architecture from the Reconquista. This keep was built to defend the Tagus River and guarantee the security of the people looking for gold in the Zzere River.The limestone cornerstones stand out from the schist, where you can still see the marks of medieval stonemasons. The lintel of the doorway is also made of limestone and includes a funerary stele, probably Visigothic, decorated with spears, swords, and shields. Inside the tower are several intact Templar funerary stelae, reminiscent of the times when these knights defended their territory from Muslim attacks and sought burial in the houses of God.Over the centuries, Portugals borders became secure, and the Torre de Dornes lost its defensive purpose. As a result, in the 16th century, the tower was repurposed to include church bells, thus becoming a bell tower.4. Almourol CastleAlmourol Castle. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCastelo de Almourol is one of the most iconic Templar castles in Portugal. Located on a small islet in the middle of the Tagus River, this historical landmark was part of the strategic defensive line against the Moors.However, the Knights Templar were not the first to settle here. Historians believe the islet was first occupied as a prehistoric hillfort. Moreover, archaeologists have found evidence of Roman, Visigothic, and Moorish occupation. When the Templars arrived here in the 13th century, there was a Moorish fortification named Al-Morolan.Yet, the building you can visit and explore today is a Templar castle built in 1171 by Gualdim Pais. The castle presents a square-shaped, irregular floor plan, with elevated walls reinforced by adjoining towers. Inside the castle is a keep overlooking the Tagus River.Under the Knight Templars possession, Castelo de Almourol became a strategic point for controlling the trade of olive oil, wheat, pork meat, and wood from the lands along the Tagus River banks to Lisbon.As the Reconquista progressed, the castle lost its relevance. Later, in the 14th century, when the Order was extinct, the Almourol Castle was transferred to the newly-founded Order of Christ created by King Dinis.In 1755, the castle was damaged by the massive earthquake that devastated half of Portugal. However, reconstruction happened two centuries later and added several alterations following the 19th-century Romantic paradigm.Since 1910, Castelo de Almourol has been classified as a National Monument.5. Santa Maria do Olival ChurchSanta Maria do Olival Church, Tomar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSanta Maria do Olival Church, located in the Templar city of Tomar, was built in 1160 by Gualdim Pais. The purpose of the Knights Templar Grand Master was to build a church for the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ. This is where Gualdim Pais and Gil Martins, the first Grand Master of the Order of Christ, are buried.The church was built over the ruins of a Benedictine monastery, opposite the Convento de Cristo and overlooking Castelo de Tomar.Under King Afonso IIIs rule, the church was extensively renovated, transforming the original design into the Gothic church you can visit today. As a result, only the round-arched door remains from the original Romanesque building. The new church became a benchmark for Portuguese Gothic architecture and served as a prototype for various parish, monastic, and cathedral churches throughout the country.Under the rule of the Order of Christ, Igreja de Santa Maria do Olival became the mother church with jurisdiction over all the overseas churches in the new territories found by the Portuguese, according to the papal bull of March 13, 1455.Igreja de Santa Maria do Olival is a landmark of mendicant Gothic architecture in Portugal. Nevertheless, it also has elements of Manueline, Renaissance, and Mannerist architecture. Inside, you can admire the sculpture of Nossa Senhora do Leite. On the outside, the watchtower was adapted into a belfry, from where you can see the Convent of Christ.Igreja de Santa Maria do Olival has been classified as a National Monument since 1910.

The Vikings believed in life after death, but also that people could get caught between life and death. Returning as a revenant usually happened to evil people who clung to life for their own vile purposes. These zombie-like creatures were called, among other things, draugr, aptrganga (after walkers), or haugbui (mound-dwellers). They had superhuman strength and terrorized communities until their bodies were disposed of in such a way as to prevent them from rising again. Below are some of the surviving stories of the undead from the Icelandic sagas, plus a look at how the Vikings buried suspected revenants to stop the dead from rising.Grettir the Draugr SlayerGrettir from manuscript AM 426, Iceland, c. 17th century. Source: rni Magnsson InstituteGrettis saga is one of the Icelandic sagas written down in the 13th or 14th century but talks about events that supposedly occurred in the 10th or 11th century. It tells the story of Grettir, who was determined to become a monster slayer, like the pagan warriors of old, in a swiftly Christianizing Iceland.The first creature that Grettir fights in his quest to become a hero is the draugr of a man who used to be called Kar the Old. He is now protecting the treasure in his burial mound from looters. Grettir kills the draugr with a sword and takes treasure from his burial mound, including a fine sword.Later in life, Grettir faces another draugr, who had been a strong but ignorant herdsman named Glamr. He was known to do things such as ignore Yule traditions and demand his wife serve him meat when he should be fasting. One day, around Yule, he went out into the snow to deal with a wight causing problems in the area. While he seems to have driven the creature off, he lost his own life in the process. The townspeople were unable to retrieve his body, so he did not receive a proper burial. Not long after, many members of the community encountered the dead man abroad, confirming that he had become a draugr. His level of mischief increased over time, destroying houses with his bare hands, sending cattle mad, and killing men by crushing their bones.Glamr Riding Roofs, by John Vernon Lord, 2002. Source: University of Notre DameEventually, Grettir appears on the scene determined to face Glamr despite warnings from the locals and the death of his horse. When the two eventually confront one another, Glamr is described as an enormous figure stinking with the decay of death. His nose is falling off, his skin is dead and green in places, his nails and hair have continued to grow, and he has dead red eyes. The two wrestle, but Grettir is no match for the strength of the draugr who uses his nails as knives.During the fight, Glamr curses Grettir by stating that from that moment forth he will only have ill luck, he will never get stronger, only weaker, and that Grettir will forever be haunted by the eyes of the draugr. This distraction allows Grettir to grab his sword and behead the draugr. The body was then burned, and the charred bones were buried in a remote spot far from the village. But Glamrs curse came to pass and Grettir would eventually die as an outlaw.Thrainn the Undead Witch KingX-ray image of the Lesja Sword, Norway, c. 800-1000. Source: University of OsloHromundar saga Gripsonnar was also written in the 14th century and relates events reported to have occurred at the start of the 11th century. The hero Hromundr goes into battle against an ex-berserker warrior and an undead witch king called Thrainn, who is a draugr. He was previously a Gallic king and used sorcery for his evil ends in life. Thrainn had previously killed 420 men singlehandedly, including Saemingr, the legendary first king of Norway, with an enchanted sword called Mistletoe. He reportedly entered his burial mound while still alive, actively choosing to become undead.Sailing to Gaul with the express purpose of entering Thrainns burial mound, Hromundr was the only man of a team of 60 brave enough to enter and attempt to kill it. He finds the king sitting in a chair, and he is described as ugly, with blue skin, and clad in gold. Hromundr steals the kings sword and then challenges him to fight, but the weary draugr is uninterested in the battle. After much goading from Hromundr, Thrainn rises to the conflict but insists that they wrestle since he is unarmed without his sword.The draugr uses his fingernails as talons and scratches the heros neck but is overpowered. Before being slain, Thrainn warns Hromundr of the dangers of prioritizing wealth over the truly important things in life. Unmoved, Hromundr beheads the draugr with his own sword and then sets his body on fire. Later, when his companions ask him what happened, Hromudr suggests that Thrainn died by choice.Hrappr the GreedyInk drawing of a draugr, by Kim Diaz Holm, 2024. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLaxdoela saga was written in the 13th century and tells the story of the people of the west of Iceland between the 9th and 11th centuries. Hrappr was a Hebridean man with a Scottish father and a Hebridean mother. He was forced to immigrate to Iceland after his violent temper caused him trouble in his homeland. He set up a homestead and fought with his neighbors until he was bedridden in old age. He requested that he be buried in the main room of his house where he could continue to watch over his home.After death, he did just that, as a draugr. He terrorized everyone who remained on his farm until they fled, and he started terrorizing the neighbors. This caused the neighbors to go to the local leader for help. A plan was hatched to dig up the body and move it away from the farm. While this caused a reduction in Hrapprs haunting activities, he still eventually sent his son mad so that he killed himself.Next, another kinsman set sail to Iceland with the intent of taking over the farm. But as they were sailing, their boat was struck by an unnatural storm, and all but one man was killed.The farm remained deserted for several years until a man named Olafr bought it at a huge discount. It was not long after he arrived that Hrappr started haunting the new household. Olafr saw the draugr himself and threatened him with a spear, but Hrappr just grabbed the spear and sank into the earth. The next morning, he was dug up again, and his body had not decomposed, and he had the spear blade with him. This time they burned the body and scattered the ashes at sea. Hrappr was not seen again.Thorolf Lame-Foot the UndecayedThe Sea Troll, by Theodor Kittelsen, 1887. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the Eyrbyggja Saga, written in the 13th or 14th century, Thorolf Lame-Foot is another draugr. In life he was known to be an evil man who took advantage of his neighbors and even dabbled in black magic. One night he sat in his high seat all evening and refused to rise as others left. In the morning, he was found in the same high seat, dead, eyes open like the living dead. Everyone was afraid to walk past his corpse until his eyes were closed.When his son Arnkel came to remove the body, he approached it from behind to avoid eye contact and then covered the head with a cloth. He then had a hole cut in the wall to carry his father out. Arnkel stayed in his fathers home for three nights after his death, but nothing ill happened.But after Arnkel left, the locals believed that Thorolf was abroad and thought it best to be home before dusk to avoid encountering him. Moreover, the oxen that had been used to drag Thorolfs body to its final resting place went wild and howled themselves to death. Cattle that went near his grave suffered a similar fate. Many shepherds reported being chased by Thorolf. There eventually came a day when a herdsman and his entire flock went missing. The next day, the people found the body of the herdsman with every bone in his body broken. Many members of the household fled, and many died, but they were later seen in the company of Thorolf, also undead.Burial mound Gokstadhaugen, Sandefjord, Norway. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter the perilous winter ended, Thorolfs son decided to retrieve and move his fathers body to end the chaos. When they retrieved it from its burial mound, they found that the body had not decayed but looked evil. Again, the body was heavy, and the oxen used to pull the cart to move the body quickly went mad. As a result, they had to bury him closer than they had wished, at a place henceforth called Half-Foots Head. For protection, they raised an enormous wall around the burial mound, so high that fowl could not pass over it, trapping him inside.This dealt with the draugr for a time, but after his son Arnkel died, Thorolf was found abroad again. The locals retrieved his body, which was still undecayed, and set it on fire, though it took an eternity to burn. They then scattered his ashes at sea, finally ridding the community of the undead scourge.Thorgunna and the Draugr EpidemicThe Three Dead, from De Lisle Psalter, England, c. 1308-1340. Source: British LibraryLater in the same saga, Thorgunna suffers a similar fate. Following a storm in which it reportedly rained blood, only Thorgunna was not able to wash the red marks away. This quickly led to her falling ill. Knowing that she would soon die, she bequeathed all her worldly wealth to Skalholt Church, where she also wanted to be buried. The only exception was her bed linens, which she wanted burned. But when she died, the man responsible for carrying out her wishes, Thorod, gave the bed linens to his wife at her request.As a group of men was transporting Thorgunnas body to its burial place, a great storm beset them and they had to stop, taking the corpse into the house of a local couple overnight. As the men were speaking with their host and warming themselves in front of the fire, they heard sounds in the kitchen. When they went in, they saw Thorgunnas corpse, completely naked, setting a meal for them all. Considering it dangerous to refuse the draugrs hospitality, they blessed the meal with holy water and ate. Thorgunna returned to her corpse box and seems to have been buried without further incident.When the men delivering her body returned home to Frodis-Water, people began to fall sick and die in the same way as Thorgunna. It started with a herdsman, who died in his bed in the same manner and was buried at the local church. His draugr attacked Thorir Wooden-Leg when he went to use the outhouse, and he later died in bed in the same way. He was buried at the local church, but his draugr was later seen abroad with the herdsman. Another six men died in short succession.Skalholt Cathedral, Iceland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThere was then a disturbing incident in which a seal draugr entered the home of Thorod. The seal was repeatedly beaten but just kept coming back until its head was completely smashed in. It was only after this that Thorod finally burned Thorgunnas bed linens.Further hauntings and deaths followed. According to the saga, at the start of this series of incidents, Frodis-Water had a population of 37 serving folk, but following these events, 18 were dead, five fled, and only seven remained.Revenant Burials and GravesArtistic reconstruction of a potential revenant burial excavated at Bogovej, Denmark, c. 10th century. Source: ResearchgateWhen the Vikings were pagans, cremation followed by burial was the most common way to honor the dead. It was believed that an element of human vitality remained attached to the body after death, and burning was a way to detach it. Placing something in the ground was a way to move it between worlds, and burial mounds were seen as gateways between life and the afterlife. Reflecting these beliefs, according to Odins Law, anything burned on a funeral pyre or personally placed into the ground could be taken into the afterlife (Ynglinga saga, 8).When the Vikings converted to Christianity, cremation was abandoned as it was believed to be important to maintain the bodys integrity for eventual resurrection. This undermined some of the rituals the Vikings relied on to prevent revenants and may explain why stories of them were so common in Christian Iceland.Consequently, people had to resort to other strategies to prevent the undead from rising. They might block the eyes, mouth, and nostrils to limit their senses and cut fingernails to remove these potential weapons. Bodies were sometimes carried out of a hole in the wall, rather than a door, to make it difficult for them to find their way back. For the same reason, some bodies were buried in remote and distant locations. Stones were placed on the body to prevent rising, and walls were built around the burial mound to trap the undead.Viking Age Christian Cross, Lund, Sweden. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDecapitation and burning were a last resort as it involved damaging the body. For example, in the Fljotsdoela Saga, a troublesome giant was slain and beheaded. Once his body stopped contorting, they placed his head between his legs and burned his body to prevent him from walking again. It may be that the Vikings believed the head had a special supernatural significance. When Mimir was killed and beheaded by the Vanir gods, Odin was able to magically reanimate his head.While revenant burials are often mentioned in the sagas, they are harder to identify in the Norse archaeological record. While there is plentiful evidence for decapitated burials, it is unclear whether this was done to prevent the dead from rising or for other reasons, such as to punish a criminal or mark someone out as a slave. There are also examples of weights and weapons placed in graves, which may have been meant to prevent the dead from rising.Ulvsunda Sheet, Uppland, Sweden, c. 8th-12th centuries. Source: Kulturarv StockholmOne potential example of a revenant grave may come from a 10th-century Danish cemetery at Bogovej. A female, aged 30-40, had been decapitated and her head placed between her legs. The grave contained jewelry that seems to have been displaced from its original position, which may suggest that she was buried normally, and then dug up, decapitated, and reburied.Further evidence may come from a bronze runic plate, called the Ulvsunda sheet, found in Uppland, Sweden. It has an inscription on both sides, no bigger than a fingernail, composed of 30 tiny runes. It seems to be an incantation to prevent the dead person with whom it was buried from rising. A reconstruction of the inscription may read Dont be over-lively out of the grave ghost, may the evildoer get woe. Similarly, the Nrre Nr Kirke Runestone also seems to contain a spell to keep the dead in their graves.While the surviving evidence is often challenging to interpret, it is clear the undead were considered a serious threat in Viking society. Laws existed prohibiting any actions to raise the dead.Selected BibliographyGardela, L. (2011) Buried with Honor and Stoned to Death? The Ambivalence of Viking Age Magic in Light of Archaeology, Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia 4(2009) 339-375.Guerreiro F. (2003) Stranded in Midgardr: Draugar Folklore in Old Norse Stories, University of Oslo.Tozzi, A. (2023) Norse Burial Practices and Medieval Fear of Revenants in the Ragnarok Saga, University of North Texas.

My original Nintendo Switch is looking more than a little worse for wear now. Its been through several thousand hours worth of use, numerous trips, and almost daily use since I bought it back in 2017. I'm awaiting the first Switch 2 direct, even as I'm not ready to say goodbye to it.

Do you love the thought of munching on seafood near a Milwaukee waterway? If so, there's a place located along the Kinnickinnic River you might want to try.