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The samurai of feudal Japan are well known in popular culture, yet the popular image of a samurai is merely a snapshot of centuries of evolution for this mighty warrior class. Here we will explore how the samurai developed from the beginning of their rule in the Kamakura Period.Beginning and EndA colorized photograph from 1860 of three samurai equipped with a variety of armor and weapons. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPicture two men, one from the mid-to-late 12th century, the other from the late 17th to 18th century. Both men are samurai, but aside from that, they appear very different. The first man, for instance, would consider the name samurai an insult. He, in ornate o-yoroi armor and open-faced helmet, would call himself a Bushi, or warrior. He is a mounted archer using a yumi bow with a great sword, a tachi, strapped to his back, but he is also familiar with other weapons such as the naginata polearm.The second man may appear a closer fit to the popular image of a samurai. He also uses the term Bushi but considers samurai an appropriate rank for his social class and standing. His armor is less ornate but better designed for hand-to-hand melees and more powerful weapons. Though also familiar with the same weaponry as the first man, he may also use a tanegashima musket, and instead of a tachi on his back, he carries two swords at his waist. These, usually a katana and the smaller wakizashi, are symbols of his status and rank to be worn at all times, as is his right.The fascinating differences between these two men are not just about appearance either. Their identities, customs, legal status, and privileges dramatically shifted as the samurais domination of Japan developed and solidified over the centuries. Yet fascinatingly, while history changed so much between both mens lifetimes, one thing that remained almost identical was their principles of honor and devotion to their way of life.Political Origins: The Kamakura and Ashikaga ShogunatesA depiction of the Kamakura and early Ashikaga shogunate samurai, both nobles on horseback in o-yoroi style armor and their naginata armed attendants, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNow that we have the before and after fully in mind, we can explore the samurais evolution, beginning with their political and societal development. The samurai emerged during the 8th to 9th centuries when the imperial court in Kyoto appointed several noble families to govern the provinces and conquer the Emishi people of northern Japan.With the emperor also abolishing the expensive armies of militia conscripts, the new provincial nobility raised their own private armies of skilled warriors and retainers. Both the retainers and nobles were part of what we now know as the samurai. However, both called themselves Bushi, as the word samurai came from a term for a domestic servant that later became used as a reference to the new warrior retainers.Over the years, the provincial families sought to assert themselves in the face of the increasingly insular imperial court nobility. In 1180, the Genpei War erupted between the Minamoto Clan and the Taira Clan over control of the imperial court, with the Minamoto eventually emerging victorious in 1185. The family head, Minamoto Yoritomo, took the title of Shogun (an archaic term meaning general in charge of defeating foreigners), and founded a new government in his hometown of Kamakura.Though the emperor remained in Kyoto as a figurehead, the Kamakura Shogunate truly ruled Japan and appointed samurai to run the imperial administration of the provinces.Scene from the Genpei war, screen. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHowever, by the 14th century, internal intrigue and the costly defense of Japan against two Mongol invasions caused the Kamakura Shogunate to collapse. In 1336, the enterprising samurai Ashikaga Takauji founded a new Shogunate in Kyoto itself.The Ashikaga Shogunate stabilized its power by decentralizing the state and abolishing the old imperial provincial land administration in favor of the provincial samurai owning the land outright. The noble families had branched out into many new samurai clans who owned and governed their provinces as their personal fiefdoms. Minor samurai owned or managed provincial estates on behalf of their province-owning great lords known as the Daimyo, who, in theory, served the Shogun.The Sengoku Jidai and the Edo PeriodA Sengoku period battle between Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, two of the most notorious rival Daimyo of the time. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1467, a dispute over the Shoguns succession led to the devastating decade-long nin War, which destroyed the Shogunates authority. For the next century after the war ended, Japan was embroiled in the Sengoku Jidai, literally the time of warring states.Notorious Daimyo such as Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin paid lip service to the Shogun while squabbling among themselves for land and power. Meanwhile, in some regions, peasant farmers and Jizamurai (independent landholding samurai) formed self-governing confederations called Ikki, while similar uprisings of militant Buddhist congregations, Ikk-Ikki, established fortified temples across Japan.After more than a century of constant conflict, one Daimyo, Oda Nobunaga, finally seized Kyoto, deposed the Shogun, and began pacifying the other Daimyo and Ikki confederations. The reunification was completed by his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, in 1590.Hideyoshi tried to direct the energy of the war-hungry samurai outside of Japan by organizing an invasion of Korea. However, the invasion failed in 1598 with Hideyoshi dying shortly after, threatening a return to civil chaos. However, another of Nobunagas followers and the third of Japans great unifiers, Tokugawa Ieyasu, took power for himself in 1615 and founded a new Shogunate based in Edo, modern-day Tokyo.So began the Edo Period, when the Tokugawa Shoguns reorganized Japanese society and closed Japan off to any foreigners. Their peaceful regime made samurai become more bureaucrats than warriors, though they still trained with arms and maintained their cultural notions of martial valor. In this way, the samurai went from provincial military retainers to feudal warlords to a stratified caste of warrior bureaucrats.The Tokugawa would reign for many more years, with the clans who had supported Tokugawa remaining in their favor, while their opponents, although not fully destroyed, remained greatly diminished over the centuries.WarfareA samurai pursuing fleeing Mongol infantry during the battle of Bunei during the first Mongol invasion in 1274. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThough they had many roles in society, the samurai are naturally most famous for their warrior prowess. The original samurai based their style of warfare on the Emishi, who fought as mounted archers in defense of their northern homes. The well-trained and skilled samurai nobles and retainers in time proved more cost-effective and militarily successful against the Emishi than the old imperial army of militia infantry conscripts.This was still true at the time of the Kamakura Shogunate. High-ranking samurai fought as mounted archers with the lower ranks supporting on foot, similar in some ways to a knight of Europe being supported by his armed attendants.In the ideal battle, the mounted archers would demonstrate their skill and courage by charging through the enemy arrows to return fire and issue challenges of single combat. These duels would break out across the lines and eventually turn from ranged to melee combat, with riders using the tachi or smaller knives depending on circumstances.The footmen would also engage in archery duels or take part in the melee armed with the naginata to take down a horse and rider and gain glory and rewards. While this was the romantic ideal of combat, the Kamakura samurai also conducted raids, urban fighting, and ambushes when required.The Mongol Invasion, Silk Tapestry, by Kawashima Jimbei II, 1904. Source: The Japanese Consulate NYThis type of small-scale, individualized fighting suited the structure of the samurai during the Kamakura Period, when there were relatively few major conflicts to be fought. During the Mongol invasions, Japanese sources noted the samurais bemusement at the Mongol use of Korean and Chinese conscripted infantry, rather than having elite warriors display their martial skill and challenge the defenders.Perhaps the Mongol generals, observing behind the front lines and descended from the great horse archers of Genghis Khan, saw some kinship with the samurais style of warfare. No doubt the samurai considered the Mongol generals cowardly and unsporting for not fighting on the front line.The Sengoku Jidai dramatically changed samurai warfare. The civil turmoil made the stylized traditional combat of the samurai impractical. Meanwhile, Ikki confederations deployed massed numbers of monks, peasants, and independent lesser samurai to defend their independent domains. These armies of massed levies, known as Ashigaru, were swiftly adopted by enterprising Daimyo.Oda Nobunaga was a keen proponent of the Ashigaru, which was a large part of his success. While samurai still served as the elite fighters and commanders of Sengoku armies, they replaced their horse archery warrior duels in favor of fighting in larger, more cohesive formations as heavy cavalry or infantry.WeaponsA scene from a sixfold screen depicting Oda and Tokugawa samurai and ashigaru armed with tanegashima muskets firing on the Takeda cavalry during the battle of Nagashino in 1575, Edo Period. Source: Google Arts & CultureAt this time, armor moved away from the more ornate original designs to more flexible and easier-to-produce designs. Later armor even used European-style iron plates inspired by Portuguese traders. Practicality also impacted weaponry.The naginata was superseded by the longer yari spear, which required less training and worked both as a lance or pike. The mighty tachi was still a fearsome weapon on horseback, but most samurai and Ashigaru adopted the smaller but less cumbersome katana as their sword of choice.While bows were still widely used, the new realities of warfare made melee combat more common, leading to the sword becoming the samurais most commonly associated weapon. However, a new ranged weapon, also a key part of Nobunagas success, soon made an even greater impact on samurai warfare.By the mid-1500s, Japan began mass-producing matchlock muskets, known as tanegashima after the island where they were first introduced by the Portuguese. They proved their battlefield worth quickly, with Takeda Shingen famously ordering his generals to decrease the number of spears per unit and have your most capable men carry guns. His son and heir, Takeda Katsuyori, tragically failed to heed this advice when his elite cavalry was wiped out by Nobunagas gunmen at the battle of Nagashino in 1575.The Japanese innovations in musketry proved devastatingly effective in Hideyoshis invasion of Korea. However, the somewhat land-focused samurai had made few innovations in naval warfare or cannons. Eventually, the Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin quite literally scuppered the invasion by destroying the Japanese navy with his more advanced navy and cannon, forcing the samurai to abandon the invasion.Katana, Edo Period. Source: The British MuseumHowever, the rise of the Tokugawa Shogunate drastically reduced the scale or frequency of conflicts. Hideyoshi and the Tokugawa Shoguns forbade the conscription of more ashigaru. Furthermore, to prevent a return to the chaos of the Sengoku Period, weapons became strictly controlled, and non-samurai were banned from carrying swords. In the new social order, the carrying of swords at the waist, known as daisho, was a status symbol exclusive to the samurai.Similar to the earlier Kamakura Period, violence, when it did occur, was small-scale between samurai entourages, but any major conflict was kept in check by the new regime. In practice, the samurai continued to train for war as they had fought in previous years, but they rarely used their skills outside of the occasional clash between bickering samurai. Bows and guns were used mostly for sport, and armor was kept mostly for parades or formal events.Society and SamuraiA contemporary portrait of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a former ashigaru promoted to the samurai by his master Oda Nobunaga. Source: Osaka City Museum of Fine ArtsJust like the evolution of the samurais political status and methods of warfare, the samurai as a social order evolved greatly from the Kamakura to the Edo Period.From their inception as provincial warriors, there was always a distinct idea of a samurai warrior, but who and how one became a samurai was not set in stone. During the Genpei War, the legendary general Minamoto Yoshitsune, according to the literary epic Heike Monogatari, summarily made a huntsmans son a samurai for guiding him and his men down a rocky ravine before the Battle of Ichi-No-Tani. The promotion came complete with a top-knot haircut and a new name to denote his new status. This demonstrates how initially, samurai were a distinct class, but one that commoners or non-samurai could obtain.This was still true during the Sengoku Jidai. Hideyoshi was originally an ashigaru from a peasant background who was Nobunagas sandal bearer. However, his promise and brilliance saw him be promoted by his master into a samurai.On a broader scale, the period also saw clans of lesser samurai rise to distinction, sometimes at the expense of more venerable families. The Mori clan, for example, rose from humble origins as a family of Jizamurai to become one of the most powerful Daimyo in Japan. At this time, the women of samurai families were also trained with arms, largely for self-defense purposes, though there are many examples of women who served as samurai. These Onna-bugeisha, as they were known, were often popularly remembered for their extreme loyalty and capability in the service of their lords.The female warrior samurai Hangaku Gozen, by Yoshitoshi, 1839-1892. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOnce again, however, the Edo Period changed things. The Tokugawa Shoguns implemented an extremely rigid social structure throughout Japan, and gone were the days when a commoner could be promoted into the samurai. Even the samurai themselves were placed into a tiered hierarchy and forbidden from owning land independently. The samurai class was now explicitly designated as the retainers and servants of their lords. However, despite this codified bondage, the samurai were very much at the top of the Japanese social structure and enjoyed many legal rights and privileges. Female samurai were discouraged as the new samurai society pushed women to focus on domestic duties.The period also led to a rise in the number of ronin, masterless samurai, who were too proud, or legally barred, from renouncing their samurai heritage and becoming commoners. Instead, they became wandering vagrants selling their martial skills to the highest bidder. Effectively, the samurais position in society remained unchanged as Japanese society itself was almost frozen into place. The samurai were now locked into being almost a feudal civil service for provincial lords and the Shogun. However, their position came with rights, status, and legal privileges that set them above and apart from the rest of Japanese society.Samurai CultureA painting of the Sengoku era samurai general Akashi Gidayu composing his death poem as part of the ritual of seppuku, 19th century. Source: Tokyo Metro LibraryOf course, what it meant to be a samurai was also a cultural as well as a social question. In many ways, the core principles of samurai cultural identity remained fascinatingly consistent. The core concept of samurai culture was bushido, a code of principles that samurai were expected to follow on and off the battlefield. However, the term only arose during the 17th century, when various authors identified and codified the core principles that samurai supposedly embodied. Yet the principles of bushido itself predated the Edo Period, both in terms of a warrior code that the samurai followed, and in terms of the principles Bushido contains.During the Kamakura Period, there were several named codes, often referring to the practices of a warrior at arms, that the samurai were expected to abide by. These were often unwritten, and the details could change through the years and from province to province. However, their core tenets all seemed to stress that samurai should conduct themselves with honor, morality, and valor. These same principles would later be codified and written down into the concept of Bushido.Another notable and enduring aspect of samurai culture was their somewhat stoic attitude to death. While a samurai would not necessarily seek out death, dying in the service of a lord was seen as honorable, and death before capture was one of the most consistent philosophies of the samurai.War Helmet with Third Day Moon, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, 1886, via Ukiyo-e.orgThis was, of course, seen in one of their most notorious practices: seppuku, a form of ritualistic suicide performed by dishonored or defeated samurai through self-disembowelment. Once again, Seppuku was recorded even before the Kamakura Period, but over the years, the practice evolved into a ritual which included the writing of a poem before the act. Both Minamoto Yoshitsune, at the beginning of the Kamakura Period, and Oda Nobunaga, at the end of the Sengoku Period, ended their lives via seppuku.By taking ones own life, a disgraced samurai restored their honor and denied their enemy the glory of making the kill. While other warrior cultures sought to capture their enemies for ransom and glory, samurai instead sought the same rewards by the taking of their enemies heads. This practice appears as old as the samurai themselves, but over time became a post-combat ritual, with the heads cleaned and carefully presented to a victorious general who would reward the respective head-takers.As the rituals of head taking and seppuku show, individual honor and the honor of ones lineage were core tenets of the samurais cultural identity. Additionally, samurai of all periods were also expected to be intellectually refined and culturally sophisticated, able to lead or take part in important social ceremonies and to be well-versed in literature, hence the tradition of composing poems before committing seppuku. Essentially, the cultural evolution of the samurai is remarkable in its consistency. While many other aspects of samurai life changed over the years, the principles and ideals they practiced and upheld, or at least claimed to, remained the same.End of the SamuraiA painting of the battle of Shiroyama, the final stand of the Satsuma rebellion, and often considered the final battle of the samurai, 1877. Source: Wikimedia CommonsReturning to the two samurai from our beginning, we can now see how the samurai evolved, but, in many ways, stayed the same. The samurai carved out a new political reality for themselves, but in all that time, the Emperor remained Japans true figurehead. They adapted to new ways of warfare and weapons, but their principles of honor and virtue remained almost unchanged.Ironically enough, the end of the samurai contained many parallels to their rise and rule. In 1854, after more than two and a half centuries, Japan was forced to reopen its borders to outsiders by the US Navy, and initially, the samurai adapted as they always had, taking on modern styles of warfare, uniforms, and weapons. Meanwhile, in the 1868 Boshin War, anti-Tokugawa samurai overthrew the Shogun (who had, after all, failed his job description of defeating the foreigners) and restored the Emperor to full power.Yet the new regime moved away from the old, rigid social system, which meant abolishing the samurai as a distinct social body. The new government even refounded the old imperial army of militia conscripts, just like the one the samurai had replaced in the 8th century, though now with guns and cannons. Most samurai bowed to the winds of change and took up new places in the imperial administration, but others would not let their way of life die without a fight. The story of the samurai ended in 1877 when Saigo Takamori, once a loyal general for the emperor, began an uprising of samurai in his home province of Satsuma.Drawing of Saig Takamori, printed in Kinsei Meishi Shashin vol. 1, 1934-35, via the National Diet LibraryThe rebelling samurai were determined to demonstrate their military superiority even in the new ways of war, but they failed to build momentum. Eventually, with their ammunition depleted, the last samurai (save for the many thousands in the imperial army and government) were trapped by the imperial army at the battle of Shiroyama. There, a wounded Takamori would follow Yoshitsune and Nobunaga in committing seppuku, while his followers either joined him or charged the imperial lines with swords in hand. In this last act of defiance, the samurai period ended, as their philosophy had always demanded, with death rather than the disgrace of defeat.The Jetavana temple bell ringsThe passing of all things.

Less than 30 percent of the worlds surface is covered in land, yet this is still a massive amount of space that humans have sought to explore and exploit. Included in all this land are around 200,000 islands.From the icy Arctic to the tropics, here are the five biggest islands in the world.1. Greenland, the Biggest Island in the WorldA map of Greenland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated north of Canada and Iceland, and with much of its landmass in the Arctic Circle, Greenland, the largest island, is also an inhospitable and very cold place. Yet there are many people who live comfortably there, and who know how to survive the territorys harsh climate.Greenland is an autonomous territory administered by Denmark, and is 2,166,086 km2 (836,330 sq mi). For context, Alaska is 1,717,856 km2 (663,268 sq mi). Overlaid onto the contiguous United States from north to south, Greenland would stretch from Canada to Mexico.Greenland was first inhabited around 4,500 years ago by the Saqqaq culture and the Independence culture, followed by the Greenlandic Dorset culture. There is academic debate over this cultural crossover, with the Greenlandic Dorset culture possibly representing two cultures: Independence II and Dorset. Recent studies show that Independence II evolved into the early Dorset culture.Nevertheless, the culture disappeared and Greenland was likely uninhabited until around 700 CE when the Late Dorset people occupied the northwestern part of the island. Around 980 CE, the Norse arrived and settled the southern tip of the island. After surviving there for 450 to 500 years, the Norse eventually abandoned the island, due to a number of suggested factors, such as climate, and environmental change, possible conflict with the Inuit, as well as loss of contact with their European counterparts.The city of Nuuk, the capital of Greenland. Source: GoodFonDenmark did not know that the settlements had disappeared, and continued to claim sovereignty over the island. During the colonial era, Denmark-Norway sent missionaries to Greenland, and discovering a lack of Norse people, converted the native Inuit to Christianity, and kept their claim on the island. More colonies were developed along the coast, and trade was expanded.During the Second World War, Denmark was occupied by Germany, and the United States took custody of Greenland until the end of the war when Denmark was liberated and the territory was handed back. Despite its close ties with Denmark, Greenland today is largely autonomous, and the territory is well-represented in Denmarks parliament.The population is mainly Inuit with around 90 percent of Greenlanders identifying as such. Minority ethnic groups include mostly Danish and other Nordic peoples.2. New Guinea: Thick Forests and Mysterious SecretsA map of New Guinea. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated in Melanesia, New Guinea is the second largest island in the world, and is home to around 15 million people. The island is 785,753 km2 (303,381 sq mi) and is separated from Australia to the south by the Torres Strait.People first arrived on the island around 60,000 years ago, and there is evidence that agriculture took place with irrigation systems around 10,000 years ago, making it one of the oldest centers of ancient agriculture.A tribesman from Papua New Guinea. Photograph by Jon Radoff, 2005. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAustronesian people arrived on the island around 1,500 years ago, bringing with them new languages, cultural practices, and new technology, such as pottery to the island. Europeans first had contact with the island in the 16th century, but the island remained mostly unexplored until the late 19th century. The thick rainforests made exploration difficult and hid the local populations well. Many of the tribes that lived in New Guinea practiced cannibalisma practice which mostly died out by the 1950s, although there have been later instances. The truth of whether the practice continues today is a subject of debate and one that demands a deeper understanding of the nuances and beliefs of the practice.Today, the island is split between two nations. The eastern half forms the major landmass of Papua New Guinea, while the western half is part of Indonesia.3. Borneo, an Island of Incredible BiodiversityThe island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Source: Google EarthThe third largest island in the world, the Southeast Asian island of Borneo covers 743,330 km2 (287,000 sq mi) and is divided among three sovereign states. To the north, the tiny nation of Brunei makes up around 1 percent of the islands landmass, while the rest of the island is divided between the northern 25 percent belonging to Malaysia, and the southern 74 percent belonging to Indonesia.Sentarum Lake National Park in Indonesian Borneo. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWith the vast majority of the island covered in rainforests, Borneo is home to much floral and faunal diversity. Amongst the species of teak, oak, and conifer is the Rafflesia arnoldii, the monster flower, which is the largest species of flower in the world. Borneos animals include orangutans, gibbons, elephants, leopards, and proboscis monkeys. Sadly, however, the Sumatran rhino, which used to roam these rainforests, is close to extinction, and most of the total population of around 40 individuals lives on the neighboring island of Sumatra.By contrast, the human population of Borneo currently stands at around 21.5 million. The biggest city is Samarinda, which is home to around 1 million people, and is located in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island.Human habitation of the island stretches back to around 65,000 years ago, and the island is home to some of the worlds oldest cave paintings. During the colonial period, the island was split between Dutch and British colonizers.4. MadagascarMadagascar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated off the east coast of Africa, Madagascar is the worlds fourth-largest island and covers 587,040 square kilometres (226,660 sq mi). Madagascar is home to a unique, and fascinating array of diverse flora and fauna that evolved separately from mainland Africa as a result of the land mass splitting from the mainland of Africa (which was part of Gondwanaland) around 160 million years ago.There are many unique animals on the island such as lemurs and fossas, as well as the unusual baobab trees that form a stereotypical image of the Madagascan landscape. The island was also home to the elephant bird, the largest species of bird to ever exist, which was hunted to extinction around 1,000 years ago.Sunset near Morondava, Madagascar. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe island also has a unique ethnic history that is quite different from the rest of Africa. Evidence shows its first inhabitants are thought to have been people who traveled from Southeast Asia as far back as 11,000 years ago. It is unknown whether Madagascar represented a permanent or temporary home for these people, but the island was certainly inhabited on a more permanent basis from around 2,000 to 2,500 years ago.Research has shown that the Malagasy people were originally of Austronesian origin, with later migrations from other parts of the world adding to the ethnic and genetic diversity. The Malagasy people today are a vibrant mix of different cultures that are split into many ethnic groups.Today, Madagascar is home to 32 million people, and struggles with issues of poverty and income disparity. Of great importance is the ecotourism industry, which not only supports the national economy, but is crucial for maintenance of Madagascars unique and beautiful biodiversity.5. Baffin Island, a Harsh Place to LiveLocation of Baffin Island between Canada and Greenland. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the many islands in the icy waters north of Canada, Baffin Island represents the worlds fifth-largest island. It is an inhospitable place offering very few opportunities for humans to survive.Baffin Island covers an area of 507,451 km2 (195,928 sq mi), roughly the same size as Spain, and is located north of Hudson Bay between Canada and Greenland. Despite its harsh wilderness, Baffin Island has been inhabited for more than 3,000 years. The first inhabitants were the Paleo-Eskimo, Pre-Dorset and Dorset people, followed by the Thule people who were the ancestors of the modern Inuit people who live on Baffin Island today.The first Europeans to arrive on Baffin Island were Norsemen. Around 985 to 986 CE Bjarni Herjlfsson and his crew were sailing from Iceland to Greenland when they lost their way and ended up on the shores of Baffin Island. What happened next is a subject of great debate. There is evidence to suggest that the Norse established a trading post on the island, but the evidence is far from conclusive, and LAnse aux Meadows in Newfoundland remains the only truly confirmed site so far of Norse inhabitation on the North American continent (excluding Greenland).Even when not covered in snow, Baffin Island is a foreboding place. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSubsequent European exploration occurred in the 16th century when Englishman Martin Frobisher made landfall. The Island, however, ended up being named after another Englishman, William Baffin, who encountered the island while searching for the Northwest Passage.Today, Baffin Island forms part of the vast Canadian territory of Nunavut and is sparsely populated, except for a few small settlements along the fjord-laden coastline. The biggest of these settlements is Iqaluit, which is home to around 7,500 people and is the capital of the entire Nunavut Territory.The island of Honshu is the biggest of the Japanese islands and the seventh-largest island in the world. Image: Wikimedia CommonsThere are many other islands that stand out when one looks at a world map. Sumatra, directly to the west of Borneo, is the sixth-largest island in the world, and Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands, is the seventh. Behind them is Victoria Island to the north of Canada, and then Great Britain, which includes England, Scotland, and Wales.

Few monarchs have captured the imagination of a nation as much as King Henry V (r. 1413-22). The inspiration behind hundreds of books, plays, and movies, the nine-year reign of this English monarch is deemed as one of the most successful not just of any English king, but of any monarch in history. Read on to discover why he inspired William Shakespeare, how England fared during the Hundred Years War, and why he left behind a legacy that fewif anymonarchs have been able to match ever since.Early LifeHenry V, c. 1550. Source: The National Portrait GalleryHenry was born in Monmouth Castle on September 16th, 1386, which led him to be known as Henry of Monmouth in his early years. His father was Henry of Bolingbroke, who would go on to become King Henry IV of England (r. 1399-1413), and his mother was Mary de Bohun.When Henry was born, his fathers cousin was the King of England (Richard II, r. 1377-99), and as Richard was an unpopular monarch and heirless, the young Henry was deemed a threat to Richards throne in his later years. Henry IV was the son of John of Gaunt, an influential younger son of King Edward III, so young Prince Henry (and his father) both had valid claims to the throne.When Henrys father was exiled in 1398, he was taken under the care of Richard II, who, by all accounts, treated him well. This early experience of kingship would no doubt influence Henrys later life.However, just a year later, John of Gaunt died, and Richard was overthrown by Henrys father, who was crowned as King Henry IV of England. As such, Henry was made the Prince of Wales and was next in line to the throne.During his fathers reign, Henry spent time at Queens College, Oxford, where he was living under the care of his uncle, Henry Beaufort, who was also Chancellor of the University. Henry took a liking to both literature and music, and learned to read and write in English, thus becoming the first English monarch to be educated in such a manner, further adding to his image as the idealistic English monarch.Henrys Rise to the ThroneDepiction of Owain Glyndwr by Arthur Cadwgan Michael, 1918. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne of the defining moments in Henrys life before he became king was the invaluable military experience that he gained. He fought against the Welshspecifically, Owain Glyndwrin several of the Welsh Wars at the turn of the century.In 1403, at the Battle of Shrewsbury, Henry was hit in the face by an arrow, which entered his skull. He was lucky to survive; most other soldiers would have died from infection if not from the impact, but Henry was fortunate enough to have access to the best physicians in the land. He made a recovery, although he would bear the scar for the rest of his life.Until 1408, it was the efforts of the Welsh leader Owain Glyndwr that took up most of Prince Henrys time, but with his fathers ailing health, he ended up devoting less time to the Welsh campaigns and more to the ruling of the kingdom.The young Prince Henry was also known to have a bit of a wild side as a young man, known to be a womanizer, which caused grievances between the prince and his father. However, by the time he came to the throne, much of this side of Henry had calmed down. However, it did not fail to capture the imaginations of playwrights and other creatives centuries later.A Brief History of Henry Vs ReignThe Battle of Agincourt, by Enguerrand de Monstrelet, c. 1450. Source: BnFHenry IV died on March 20th, 1413, and the next day, Henry claimed the throne as King Henry V of England. His reign would last less than a decade, but the impact he had would live on in the imagination for centuries.When Henry ascended the throne, he not only had the Welsh problem to deal with, but also the Hundred Years War with France. Not since the reign of his great-grandfather, Edward III, had England had as much success in the conflict, and France had taken the upper hand for a number of years by this point.In 1415, Henry renewed the Hundred Years War with France, and this stage came to be known as the Lancastrian Phase of the War (Henry was descended from the House of Lancaster).The most famous victory of all was at Agincourt, on October 25, 1415, when a hugely outnumbered English force defeated the French, to their complete surprise and shock, and Henrys popularity among his troops and back in England inspired feelings of patriotism and proto-nationalism. He was revered as the Hero of Agincourt by many and would go down in history for this underdog victory.Miniature of the battle of Agincourt, from the St Albans Chronicle, 1422. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom 1417-20, Henry undertook a second campaign in France, taking advantage of Frances mentally-incapacitated king, Charles VI the Mad, putting huge pressure on him. He took Paris, and France lost more territory under Charles VI than they had lost in the whole of the war, which had been raging on since the 1330s.In 1420, Henry V and Charles VI signed the Treaty of Troyes, which acknowledged that Henrys heirs would become kings of France as well as kings of England, while Henry V himself was recognized as King Regent of France. This meant that Charles had to disinherit his own son, the Dauphin Charles.Furthermore, Henry also married one of Charless daughters, Catherine of Valois, which meant that there was now also a physical union between France and England. However, Henry V died on August 31, 1422, leaving behind a nine-month-old son, Henry VI, but Charles VI outlived him by just two months, throwing plans of the English succession to the French throne into turmoil.How Accurate Was Shakespeares Portrayal of Henry V?William Shakespeare, by John Taylor, c. 1611. Source: ArtukWhenever Henry V is mentioned, most people think of one of the many movies (which will be discussed next) or of Shakespeares Henry V, which was written in 1599.For the most part, William Shakespeares interpretation of Henry V is accurate. He got most of his information from the Tudor historian and writer Raphael Holinshed, but there are, naturally, some exaggerations in favor of the nationalistic spirit and propaganda.It is important to remember that Shakespeare was writing in a time when English national fervor was at an all-time high, so he had to showcase the power of the English against other forces and portray the English as saints, rather than sinners.Two of the key events that Shakespeare portrays well in his play are the relationship between Catherine of Valois and Henry V. They are portrayed as being a genuinely loving couple, and by most accounts, this seems to be the case of what the royal couple was actually like. Secondly, another area that Shakespeare portrays very accurately is the Battle of Agincourtthe focal point of the play, and of Henry Vs reign in general.Henry V receiving a book, 1411-2. Source: British LibraryHowever, some elements have been inserted in the play for dramatic effect, which is only natural given that it is a dramatic adaptation of the life and reign of King Henry V, but also goes to show that we as historians should not take for granted the work of playwrights, and instead turn to historical sources like chronicles and books.One of these elements is the St Crispins Day speech. While rousing and patriotic, this is simply credited to Henry V for dramatic effect, and there is no evidence to suggest that he gave such a speech. Secondly, Shakespeare also simplifies the role of Charles VI, portraying him as a fairly stable king, rather than the mentally incapacitated monarch that he actually was. Whether this was done out of respect for Charless condition we do not know, but the more likely answer is because it showed Charles as even more pathetichow could a mentally stable ruler be such a bad king, and let his enemy (Henry V) take over France in the way that he did? This again highlights the patriotism and feelings of national pride that Shakespeare was aiming for when writing the play.So overall, while the play is a solid reflection on Henry Vs life and reign, it is worth taking Shakespeares interpretation of the man and the king with a pinch of salt. Dramatic effect is one thing, but generating a feeling of patriotism and proto-nationalism was perhaps the main aim behind the writing of the play about one of Englands finest kings, almost two centuries after his death.Henry V on the Big ScreenTom Hiddleston as Henry V, in The Hollow Crown, by LPSoulX. Source: DeviantartSimilarly, other interpretations have been made of Henry V, predominantly in the 20th century, when the medium of cinema was at arguably its golden age. People wanted the life and reign of a man they had read about in books, in classrooms, and seen on the stage brought to life in the cinema.There are three main movies about Henry V: one released in 1944, another released in 1989, and a third released in 2019. All of them show the king in slightly different ways.The 1944 movie, starring the legendary actor Laurence Olivier as King Henry V, is arguably the most famous. Again, the context is important: Britain was fighting in the Second World War, and feelings of national pride were important, not just for good morale at home, but for showing how England had previously come from being underdogs to emerge victorious. This film naturally shows Henry V as the legendary underdog monarch, who emerges victorious against the French.The 1989 adaptation (starring Kenneth Branagh as Henry V) is similarly patriotic. The Cold War was coming to an end, and British popular nationalism was at an all-time low. While the Falklands War of 1982 had brought back some popular feeling, for much of the country, rule under Margaret Thatcher for the previous decade, who had attempted to bring patriotism back, had felt tight and restricted. This movie shows more about Henry as a ruler, rather than Henry as the all-winning, quintessential English hero.Finally, the most recent adaptation, released in 2019 and starring Timothe Chalamet as Henry V and titled The King, came under criticism for its historical inaccuracies. While the movie itself focuses on the young Henry rather than his role as king (despite the name), the play took the focus away from feelings of national patriotism (perhaps wise in the wake of the Brexit referendum three years prior). It was based more loosely on Shakespeares plays Henry IV and Henry V. While not historically accurate, it is an interesting interpretation of the life of the young king.Henry Vs LegacyMorning of the Battle of Agincourt, by John Gilbert, 1884. Source: ArtukHenry V is undoubtedly one of the greatest monarchs to ever rule England, and a testament to that is how often he has been portrayed through works of historical fiction. From Shakespeares 16th-century play to interpretations of the king being made into films as recently as 2019, the idea that Henry V was a hugely important monarch has never left the British imagination.Brits are known for loving an underdog story, so perhaps this is what draws Henry V to the attention of so many of us. Either way, it goes without saying that Henry V was one of the greatest monarchs to ever sit on the English throne, and he will be remembered long past the end of the 21st century.