Doctors report an analysis of a woman's fatal aneurysm, pinpointing its likely causes after her death.

This Small Village Is The Cheese Curd Capital Of Wisconsin In the rolling fields of Western Wisconsin, there's a town where cheese curds are a way life. Ellsworth, with a population of just over 3,000, proudly claims the title of Cheese Curd...

The Ainu, native to the region of Hokkaido, are one of the oldest indigenous people in Japan. Their unique culture, language, and history predate the creation of modern Japan and set them apart from the rest of the country.Located in northern Honshu, Hokkaido, and parts of the Sakhalin and Kuril Islands, the Ainu have upheld a distinct cultural identity for centuries in the face of increasing pressure to assimilate into the dominant culture of mainland Japan.One of East Asias most overlooked people, the Ainu, have fascinating origins and a rich culture.Origins of the AinuA group of Ainu people, 1904. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe exact origins of the Ainu people have long been debated by historians, anthropologists, and archeologists. The prevailing theory is that they are descendants of the early Jomon people, an ancient hunter-gatherer society that roamed across the Japanese islands approximately fourteen thousand years ago. The early Jomon people were famous for their use of pottery, which used intricate designs that distinguished them from later indigenous groups. Preserved remains of the Jomon people have since been studied by anthropologists who have determined that they are genetically more closely related to the Ainu than to any subsequent ethnic group that inhabits modern Japan.Over thousands of years, the Japanese archipelago saw migrations from numerous peoples of the Asian continent, including the Yayoi people, who arrived around 300 BCE, bringing rice agriculture, metal work, and new technologies with them. While the newly arrived ethnic groups mixed with the native Jomon peoples of Japan, the isolated northern regions of the country were sparsely populated, and the Ainu who lived there carried out a less integrated way of life. This separation from mainland Japan led them to develop a unique culture that remained quite distinct, including customs and language.Many historians believe that despite their isolated nature, the Ainu may have been influenced by neighboring cultures from the Russian Far East, particularly the Nivkh and Uillta peoples, with whom they share certain cultural and genetic traits. These shared traits have led some anthropologists to believe that the Ainu were part of a broad network of peoples who traded across northern Asia and had more in common with their neighbors to the north than those living in mainland Japan to the south.Key Components of Ainu CultureA tattooed Ainu woman, 1931. Source: Public Domain / Wikimedia CommonsThroughout their pre-modern existence, the Ainu lived as hunter-gatherers with a semi-nomadic lifestyle dependent on the natural landscape. The Ainu fished extensively in the rivers of Hokkaido and hunted bears and deer in the forests. In contrast to the Yayoi peoples of the south, they did not develop rice-based agriculture and instead relied on wild plants and animals for sustenance and trade. The harsh yet bountiful ecosystem of Hokkaido greatly influenced their way of life as it discouraged settlement and persuaded a more nomadic lifestyle.Despite this lifestyle, the Ainu built permanent homes known as chise, which were made of materials such as bamboo, wood, and straw. A collection of chise was commonly gathered together in a village called a kotan, which was made up of a few families and was often located near a river that provided food and transportation. Within the Ainu community, there existed a strict social hierarchy in which the older men of the village took on a leadership role.In Ainu society, men primarily hunted and gathered food, while the women of the village contributed by harvesting edible plants and weaving textiles. Women were also responsible for the practice of anchi-piri, in which women were decorated with tattoos around the mouth and hands. These markings were seen as signs of beauty and maturity. Tattoos were also thought to serve a religious purpose, as the Ainu believed that evil spirits could not enter the body after death if the mouth had been tattooed.The Spirituality of the AinuThe Iomante ceremony by Hirasawa Byzan, 1875. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe spiritual beliefs and practices of the Ainu were highly sophisticated and are one of the most unique aspects of their isolated culture. The Ainu belief system was based on animism, the belief that all aspects of nature, especially the animals, plants, mountains, and rivers, are inhabited by god-like spirits known as the kamuy. Notably, a spirit could either have malevolent or benevolent qualities depending on the interpretation of signs and symbols. The most worshiped of all the animal spirits was the bear, which was seen as the living embodiment of a mountain god.The elaborate Iomante ceremony was one of the Ainus most sacred rituals and formed a key part of their religious beliefs. During the Iomante ritual, a bear cub would be taken from the wild and raised by the Ainu community, treated with reverence, and worshiped as a living embodiment of the kamuy. Once the bear had reached maturity, it would be sacrificed, and the meat would be eaten and distributed among the community, releasing the spirit from its earthly prison and benefiting the community in the process. The Ainu believed that following the sacrifice, the spirit of the bear would ascend to the spiritual world and tell the other kamuy of the kindness it experienced while living among the people, therefore securing good tidings for the village.Aside from the bear, other animals, such as owls, wolves, and foxes, held special significance for the Ainu and were revered as gods. They held special rituals in their honor and performed dances that were intended to maintain the harmony between the world of the living and the spirit world. The spirituality of the Ainu penetrated deep into every aspect of their culture, influencing their art, mythology, and daily life.Exploring the Ainu LanguageAn Ainu wedding ceremony, 2007. Source: munechika tanaka / Wikimedia CommonsDespite sharing a few common words and phrases with Japanese, the Ainu language is considered to be completely unique, meaning it is not related to any other linguistic group. The origins of the Ainu speech are unknown to this day. Existing primarily as an oral communication system with no written text, the language was passed down through generations of storytelling, songs, and religious rituals. As a result, the Ainu oral tradition is incredibly diverse, with epic tales known as yukar being passed down by family members.In addition to oral literature, the Ainu communicated their beliefs through songs called uppopo, which were sung during events such as the Iomante ceremony. These songs also covered mundane topics such as daily life, nature, and historical events. For the Ainu people, singing was more than a way to pass the time; it was a method of passing vital information down to younger members of the community.After centuries of integration and marginalization from the Japanese-speaking mainland, the language of the Ainu is considered critically endangered today. It is thought that as few as a hundred native speakers of the language remain, though efforts to preserve the language are gathering pace. Language preservation projects are underway, and the oral literature of the Ainu is being recorded for future generations.Contact Between The Ainu and Mainland JapanA group of modern Ainu, 2003, Source: Torbenbrinker / Wikimedia CommonsThe historical relationship between the native Japanese islanders and the Ainu people is long and complex. For years, the Ainu traded goods such as animal skins, dried fish, and furs with the Japanese in exchange for metal tools and other goods. However, towards the 13th century, settlers from the mainland began to encroach further upon the sacred hunting grounds of the Ainu in Hokkaido, eventually leading to increasing conflict between the two peoples.This conflict came to a head during the Koshamain Revolt in 1457, during which a number of Ainu rebelled against the Japanese settlers. While the revolt was crushed by the superior Japanese forces, an atmosphere of tension remained. During the Edo period, the Matsuma took control over much of southern Hokkaido and established a trade monopoly in the region, further marginalizing the local Ainu traders.One of the most transformative periods for the Ainu came during the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the Japanese emperor attempted to consolidate control over the disparate regions of the island archipelago. During this time, Hokkaido was officially annexed by the Japanese, and the Ainu were forced to assimilate into Japanese society. A number of their traditional customs were banned, and they were forced to learn Japanese and change their names. In 1899, the Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act was put forward as a legal framework that would help to secure the rights of the Ainu within the Japanese state, but instead, it served as a mechanism by which land belonging to the Ainu was forcibly confiscated.The Decline of the AinuA reconstruction of a traditional Ainu house, 2013. Source: Yanajin33 / Wikimedia CommonsWith the dawn of the 20th century, the forced assimilation of the Ainu into Japanese society became a key goal for the Meiji-era government. New laws disrupted the traditional way of life; lands were seized and converted for agricultural development and were settled by Japanese farmers. As a result, the Ainu were unable to make a living, and without their traditional hunting grounds, they found work on farms and in mines.Furthermore, the Japanese government prohibited certain ceremonies from taking place, such as the bear-sending ceremony, and discouraged the use of the Ainu language entirely. As Japan continued to modernize, the academic consensus in the nation was that the Ainu were primitive people who were on the verge of extinction. This officially sanctioned viewpoint resulted in widespread discrimination against the Ainu, leading to them existing on the fringes of Japanese society. Today, the Ainu language, once spoken widely across Hokkaido, has all but disappeared, and the remaining population is as few as ten thousand people in Japan.

The dawn of the 15th century marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Age of Exploration. In this century, the Portuguese would expand their reach beyond Europe and North Africa thanks to explorers like Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama. A great trade in spices and other valuable goods was already thriving across the Indian Ocean. However, there was no canal to link the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean as there is today. If the Portuguese were to reach the ports of the East by sea, they would need to navigate the unexplored African coastline.Bartolomeu Dias & Portuguese Exploration in the North AtlanticReplica of a Portuguese caravel from the 15th century, photograph by Lopo Pizarro, 2006. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1394, Henry the Navigator, a Portuguese prince, was born in the historic city of Porto. The son of King John I, he was a driving force behind the Age of Exploration and sponsored several maritime expeditions to the south and west, taking a 20% cut of the profits on their return.During his lifetime, Portuguese sailors would explore much of Africas northwest coast using their caravels, the sailing vessels of choice at the time. These ships were ideal for coastal exploration, as they were fast, highly maneuverable, and designed to navigate shallow coastal waters. Their lateen sails also made it possible to progress more efficiently against the wind.By the middle of the century, the Portuguese had discovered several Islands in the North Atlantic, including Madeira and the Azores. The acquisition of these islands was instrumental in the growth of the Portuguese Empire, as they were ideal for the production of valuable cane sugar. This period also marked the birth of the Portuguese slave trade, which saw thousands of enslaved Africans sent to Europe by the mid-16th century. However, this ambitious nation had its sights set on more distant opportunities.Bartolomeu DiasStatue of Bartolomeu Dias outside the High Commission of South Africas building in London, photograph by Luke McKernan, 2016. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBartolomeu Dias was born in 1450 in the Faro District of southern Portugal. He was a man destined to reach a dramatic milestone in European maritime exploration. We know little of his childhood, but by his thirties, he had become a knight of King John (Joo) II. The king, who ascended to the throne in 1481, had two main objectives: to capitalize on the spice trade and make contact with Prester John, the mythical Christian king.Dias was selected to head an ambitious expedition beyond the Atlantic. This was not his first journey along the west coast of Africa, but it was to be his greatest. The goal was to round Africas southern tip, in present-day South Africa, and head north across the hitherto unexplored Indian Ocean. Much of what we know of this voyage comes from the writings of Joo de Barros, penned decades later in the mid-1500s.The Voyage of Bartolomeu DiasThe desolate Namibian coastline near Walvis Bay, photograph by Hp.Baumeler, 2018. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDias set sail in August 1487 with a fleet of three ships. Two of them, the So Cristovo and the So Pantaleo, were caravels, and the third was a supply ship. Their first stop was at the Portuguese castle at Elmina, Ghana, to replenish supplies. They then traveled more than 2,000 miles south to Namibia, where they left their supply ship.The caravels continued south to the vicinity of the Gariep River mouththe landmark that forms the boundary between present-day Namibia and South Africa. Here, on Africas southwest coast, the dominant winds blow from the southeast and southwest. These headwinds forced the fleet to change course, heading not south in their intended direction but rather southwest into the open Atlantic.After about two weeks, they reached a latitude where the wind direction changed to a westerly one, allowing them to head back toward the shore. However, they had already passed the southwestern tip of Africa at Cape Point, and thus, they failed to reach land. One can only imagine the anxiety those sailors must have felt over the month or so they spent out of sight of the shore.Adjusting their heading to the northeast would bring them back to land on February 3, having missed much of South Africas west and southwest coast. The land they found was a stark contrast to the inhospitable landscapes they had last seen in Namibia. At last, the Portuguese had rounded the tip of Africa.Terra FirmaA depiction of Mossel Bay, adapted from a 1778 painting, 1914. Source: Rijksmuseum, AmsterdamMossel Bay is a sheltered bay on the Indian Ocean, approximately 200 miles due east of Africas southwestern tip at the Cape of Good Hope and over 100 miles from the southernmost point of Africa at Cape Agulhas. Several small rivers reach the sea in the vicinity of Mossel Bay, and the surrounding areas are relatively lush and green, with deep forests and towering mountains just inland.Here, Bartolomeu Dias and his crew took stocks of fresh water and traded with the local Khoikhoi herdsman for livestock. Sadly, this first interaction with indigenous South Africans would turn violent. Despite the Portuguese kings orders to remain peaceful, Dias would shoot and kill a man with a crossbow after a confrontation over the crews use of water resulted in aggression from the local people. After leaving Mossel Bay, the sailors followed the imposing, rocky shore east until the coast veered north.They continued along the coast for a further six weeks until the crew insisted on turning back. It was mid-March, and the expedition had taken them as far as the mouth of the Great Fish River, or Rio Infante, as they had called it. One of Bartolomeu Dias objectives was to place physical markers called padres at key points along the coast to leave a record of their progress and proclaim the areas as both Portuguese and Christian. These limestone pillars were roughly seven feet tall and topped with a cross. They also included the date, the name of the explorer who placed them, and the kings name.Padro, erected by the Portuguese on the Mouth of the Zaire River, by Roque Gameiro. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBartolomeu Dias would erect three padres on this voyage, the first of which was left at Kwaaihoek, near present-day Port Elizabeth, to mark their progress. The monument to his historic journey was located in 1938 by Professor Eric Axelson. It was reconstructed from thousands of fragments and is preserved at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa.Bartolomeu Dias Returns to PortugalA replica of the original padro erected near Luderitz, Namibia, photograph by Damien du Toi, uploaded by Andre Engels, 2006. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBartolomeu Dias return trip would follow the coast, taking in the southwestern coastline around the Cape of Good Hope, where another padro was erected. The crew stopped again in Luderitz, Namibia, to erect their last padro and collect their supply ship. Sadly, by this time, just three of the nine men who stayed with the ship had survived. The rest were killed in skirmishes with locals.Dias and crew arrived back in Portugal in December 1488. They had not only reached new ground and left the padres to prove it, but they had also shown that it was possible to access the Indian Ocean by sea. Crucially, they had also deciphered the wind patterns that made sailing possible in the region.Despite Dias and his crews achievement, the Portuguese had still not made the journey from Europe to India by ship. King John II would not launch another attempt before his death in 1495, but his successor, King Manuel, would. The new king inherited the desire to establish access to the lucrative spice trade and set to work arranging a new expedition.Vasco da Gama Rounds the CapeVasco da Gama, by DR, January 1, 1526. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe leader of this voyage would be Vasco da Gama, who was born around 1460 in Sines on the southwest coast of Portugal. At the time of his voyage, the Portuguese had already seen most of the African coastline. All that remained was the approximately 1,200-mile stretch between the Great Fish River, where Dias turned back, and Sofala in Mozambique. This port on the east coast had been visited from the north by the explorer and spy Pro da Covilh between 1488 and 1491.Da Gama launched the expedition on July 8, 1497, with an experienced crew of approximately 160 men. The fleet consisted of four vessels: the So Gabriel, the So Rafael, the Berrio, and a supply ship. They chose to head south across the open ocean rather than hugging the west coast of Africa as Dias had done. They were out to sea for over two months before landing at St. Helena Bay on South Africas west coast on November 7, 1497.They anchored in this large bay for eight days before retreating after a skirmish with local peopleda Gama himself was shot in the leg. Their next stop was Mossel Bay, where they stayed for about two weeks before relations with the local herders soured. They then decided to continue east.Onwards to IndiaVasco da Gama sets sail to India in 1497, by Roque Gameiro, c. 1900. Source: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, LisbonBy Christmas Day of 1497, the ships had reached Port St. Johns on South Africas east coast. They were well beyond Bartolomeu Dias furthest point and on track to complete their objective. At this stage, the men had been at sea for over six months, and supplies had dwindled. Poor nutrition left the crew riddled with scurvy, with many succumbing to malnutrition. They journeyed north through uncharted waters and reached northern Mozambique by the start of March. With the combined efforts of Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, and Pro da Covilh, the Portuguese had now rounded the entire African coastline.Da Gama and his crew continued north, arriving at Malindi in modern-day Kenya in mid-April 1498. Here, they erected a padronow known as the Vasco da Gama Pillarwhich still stands today. Their ships anchored at Malindi for twelve days before setting sail for India on April 26.Three hundred nine days after leaving Portugal, da Gama would reach the city of Calicut on May 20, 1498. The arrival of the Portuguese in India would position them as European leaders in the spice trade. However, the coming centuries saw the start of a Spice War involving other European countries such as the Netherlands, England, and Spain.

On New Years Eve 192 CE, the Roman Empires Golden Age, almost a century of political tranquility, came to an abrupt and violent end. A protracted period of civil war followed as various men sought to fill the void left by the imperial dynasty that died with Commodus. This competition between rival emperors ended in February 197 CE at Lugdunum in Gaul, with the largest battle in Roman history.The Build-Up to the Battle of Lugdunum: Civil WarPortrait bust of Commodus in the guise of Hercules, Roman, c. 177-192 CE. Source: Capitoline Museum, Rome, by Kieren JohnsOn New Years Eve 192 CE, a cabal of Roman senators and other conspirators gathered the courage to finally strike against a tyrant. The victim of the plot was the emperor Commodus. Famous to modern audiences as the villain of the Hollywood blockbuster Gladiator, he had slowly descended into megalomania for the latter part of his 12-year reign. He gave increasingly free reign to his cruelty, while his delusions of grandeur went far beyond an obsession with the gladiatorial arena. Reputedly, he was even planning to rename Rome after himself. The imperial capital would henceforth be known as Commodiana!On December 31, drunk and bloated as he wallowed in his bath, Commodus was poisoned. Unfortunately for the conspirators, the emperor survived and managed to purge his body of the toxins. However, in his weakened state, he was easy pickings. Narcissus, a powerful young wrestler who was kept around Commodus court, was dispatched by the emperors wife to go and finish the job. The wrestler strangled Commodus. With his death, Romes so-called Golden Age came to an end. This was almost a century of political peace and stability that coincided with the reigns of the Antonine Emperors: Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Commodus, Marcus Aurelius son, had no heirs. With the dynasty at an end, there was a political vacuum.Portrait bust usually identified as Pertinax, Roman, c. 193 CE. Source: Capitoline Museum, Rome, by Kieren JohnsEarly on the morning of New Years Day, Rome awakened to a new emperor. The elder statesman, Publius Helvius Pertinax, was recognised by his fellow senators. While he may have had the support of his former colleagues, he was not a popular choice among other demographics in Rome, not least the Praetorian Guards. The imperial bodyguards, accustomed to lavish pay and an easy life under Commodus, did not take kindly to the new emperors tighter control of their pay and privileges. Within three months, Pertinax was murdered. The guards stormed the imperial palace and slaughtered the old man.Rivals Turn Allies: Septimius Severus and Clodius AlbinusAureus of Septimius Severus with winged Victory reverse, Alexandria, 193-195 CE. Source: British MuseumWith the death of Pertinax, Rome descended into political chaos. The Praetorian Guards retreated into their camp, fearful of retribution. There, they were entreated by two men, Titus Sulpicianus and Didius Julianus. Aware, following Pertinaxs premature end, of the need to have the support of the Praetorians if they wished to rule, the two men offered the soldiers increasingly higher sums of money.This donative or cash payment was a typical gift offered by new emperors upon their accession. Despite this, the competitive character of this exchangebetween the guards, Sulpicianus, and Julianuswas rather grubby. The whole fiasco was characterized as an auction for the empire by the historians who described it. In the end, Julianus bid of 25,000 sesterces for each guardsman was enough to trump Sulpicianus resources. Julianus was welcomed into the camp and proclaimed emperor. However, any positive mood would be short-lived: Rome was on course for civil war.Aureus of Clodius Albinus with seated Fortune reverse, Rome, 194-195 CE. Source: British MuseumWhile Julianus was in control of Rome, a number of rival candidates for imperial power emerged around the empire. In the east, the governor of Syria, Pescennius Niger, was acclaimed by his soldiers. He had previously been the subject of impassioned public pleas by the urban plebs in the Circus Maximus. In the west, the governor of Britain, Clodius Albinus, was also declared emperor. Between these two rivals, there was a third, Septimius Severus, the governor of Pannonia. Of all of the imperial rivals, Severus was recognized as the shrewdest, not only by his contemporaries, but also later, by Machiavelli. The governor of Pannonia knew that once Julianus was dealt with, there would be a conflict between the surviving rivals. Severus approach was an ingenious form of divide and conquer.Portrait bust identified as Clodius Albinus, Rome, c. 193-197 CE. Source: Capitoline Museum, Rome, by Kieren JohnsFirst, he marched on Rome, where he promptly dispatched Julianus and the avaricious Praetorians who had sold the empire. With the symbolic heart of the empire secured, Severus then made overtures to Clodius Albinus. An alliance between the two was formed, with Severus recognising Clodius as his junior partner and heir. Crucially, however, no formal adoption took place. Nevertheless, the bond was cemented by Albinus using Severus as part of his nomenclature. Epigraphic evidence from this period identifies the governor as Severus partner in power, such as from a dedication at Ostia for the safe return of Augustus Severus and his Caesar Albinus. With Italy and the western provinces under his control, Severus turned his attention to Niger in the east.Scene of defeated Parthians from the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Forum Romanum, Rome, 203 CE. Source: Kieren JohnsNotwithstanding a protracted siege of the city of Byzantium, which remained loyal to Niger, Severus was able to defeat his eastern rival over the course of 193-194. The decisive battle was fought at Issus in late 194, the same battleground on which Alexander the Great had defeated the Persians centuries before.A brief campaign followed thereafter, waged against the eastern territories that had allied with Niger, including the Arabians and Adiabenes. Known as the First Parthian War, the strategic goals are hard to ascertain. Instead, Cassius Dios caustic remark that war was simply a means for Severus to gain further glory and wealth is likely close to the mark. Significantly, the campaign also allowed Severus to integrate Nigers defeated forces into his own ranks. He would need all the fighting men he could muster for the battles that lay ahead.Battleground: Lugdunum in the Roman EmpirePortrait bust of Clodius Albinus, Rome, c. 193-197 CE. Source: Altes Museum, BerlinThe city of Lugdunum, modern Lyon, was located in southern Gaul. Originally a Gallic settlement, a Roman city had been founded on the site in 43 BCE by Lucius Munatius Plancus. He was a seasoned political maneuverer who was able to skillfully shift allegiances during the civil wars at the end of the Republic.Lugdunum rapidly became the administrative capital of the province of Roman Gaul. Its importance came, in part, from its position at the confluence of four major arterial roads, which connected it not only to important cities in Gaul, such as Massilia and Aquitania, but also Italy and the imperial frontiers in Germany. The citys importance was confirmed in 15 BCE when it was de facto recognized as a commercial hub. A mint was established at Lugdunum, replacing existing operations in Hispania. It was not until 64 CE, during the reign of Nero, that gold and silver coin production was moved back to Rome itself.So-called Lyon Tablet, Gaul/France, 48 CE. Source: Gallo-Roman Museum, LyonReflecting the citys strategic and financial importance, Lugdunum had a close relationship with numerous imperial figures throughout its history. During the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the city hosted Agrippa, Drusus, Tiberius, and Germanicus, who had all served in Lugdunum during their military careers. In fact, Claudius, the son of Drusus and a future emperor, was born in Lugdunum in 10 BCE. The relationship with members of the imperial family greatly benefitted the city, and the population boomed.Fresh drinking water was poured into the city through four aqueducts, which supplied homes and public baths. Residents of the city were entertained by spectacles at the Amphitheatre of the Three Gauls, the first amphitheater constructed in Gaul. The importance of the city was confirmed by Claudius so-called Lyon Tablet. This document records a speech delivered to the senate in 48 CE, also recorded in Tacitus Annals, which proposed to allow monied, landed citizens from Gaul to enter the senate.Heirs and Spares: The Break Between Severus and AlbinusPortrait of a boy identified as Caracalla, Roman, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Capitoline Museum, Rome, by Kieren JohnsHaving defeated Pescennius Niger, allowing him to flood his ranks with soldiers and his coffers with loot, Severus was now primed to confront his sole remaining rival for power. His eastern successes put paid to any notion of his allegiance with Albinus enduring for the long term. By late 196, it was clear to many observers that war was looming on the horizon. During the Saturnalia festivities, it was reported that the urban populace gave full voice to their laments at the coming violence. The senators, however, stayed quiet. To be seen to back the wrong rival at this juncture could have fatal consequences.The definitive catalyst for the break was Severus reneging on his initial deal with Albinus. The former governor of Britain was usurped as the imperial heir by Severus own son, Lucius Septimius Bassianus, who would go on to be known more commonly by his nickname, Caracalla. Severus son, who was born in Lugdunum in 187 while his father was posted there as the provincial governor, was barely ten years old at the time of his elevation to Caesar. He would, therefore, have had no real political authority. The move was, however, loaded with symbolic significance. Declaring Caracalla as his heir was an assertion of Severus dynastic intentions. The empire would now be ruled by the men of the Severan family.Denarius of Septimius Severus with young Caracalla on the reverse, Antioch, c. 201 CE. Source: British MuseumMoreover, Severus had Caracallas actual name changed from Bassianus to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. This connected his own family to that of the former ruling dynasty of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessors. This endowed Severus family with added prestige, which may have been an attempt to counter Albinus superior aristocracy, and it was an assertion of imperial continuity and stability. Severus regime not only looked forward but also anchored in the stability of the former regimes, which were so celebrated.Albinus, who, despite the change in his nomenclature to become a Severan, had not been formally adopted, was excluded from this. In a speech delivered to his soldiers, Severus urged them to declare Albinus a hostis publicus, an enemy of the state, an act which was usually a senatorial prerogative. With the assent of the soldiers, war was now inevitable. The stage was set for the final confrontation at Lugdunum.The Battle of Lugdunum: Severus TriumphPortrait of Septimius Severus, Rome, c. 200-211 CE. Source: Altes Museum, Berlin, by Kieren JohnsAlbinus struck first. Having been recognized by his own forces as emperor, he gathered legions from Britannia and marched them south through Gaul, establishing his headquarters at Lugdunum. His choice reiterates the citys strategic importance in the Roman period. There, Albinus was joined by Lucius Novius Rufus, the governor of Hispania, and the legion he had under his command.From Lugdunum, Albinus attacked the Germanic legions who were loyal to Severus and led by the governor Virius Lupus. Despite some successes, Albinus assaults were not enough to break the resolve of Lupus forces, who remained loyal to the Severan cause. Further encroachment south toward Italy was not feasible for Albinus at this time, as Severus had reinforced the Alpine passes. This brought Severus enough time to head west, amass his forces along the Danube River, and march into Gaul.Marble statue of Septimius Severus in military dress, Roman, c. 193-200. Source: British MuseumIt was during these initial skirmishes that one of the most extraordinary figures from Roman history emerged. Although he was only a schoolmaster, Numerianus evidently felt compelled to join the Severan cause. Masquerading as a senator sent by Severus to raise an army, Numerianus gathered a small group of men in Gaul and undertook a series of daring raids, including defeating a group of Albinus cavalry. Unaware of the false identity himself, Severus, who believed Numerianus to be a senator, commended the schoolmaster-turned-guerilla and ordered him to continue.There followed Numerianus most striking success. In a raid on Albinus forces, he captured and delivered to Severus a sum of 70 million sesterces. In the aftermath of the war, Numerianus met with Severus, the new emperor, and was offered wealth and status. The humble schoolmaster politely rejected these privileges. Instead, he opted for a quiet life in the country and a small allowance from the emperor in recognition of his services. Recorded only in Cassius Dios narrative, the episode of Numerianus appears to be a throwback to some of the more virtuous figures from Romes earliest history.Detail of the so-called Battle Sarcophagus, Rome, c. 190 CE. Source: Dallas Museum of ArtAn initial skirmish between Severus and Albinus forces at Tinurtium, modern Tournus, was ultimately inconclusive, although Severus would claim the day. Instead, having fallen back, Albinus and his men drew up at Lugdunum and, on February 19, 197, prepared to fight the largest battle in Roman history. The exact numbers of combatants are hard to establish with surety, although Dio records 150,000 men on each side. Both Severus and Albinus were present among their soldiers to lead them on the day.The battle itself was a tense affair. As Severus right wing broke through and devastated Albinus camps, so too did Severus left wing suffer terrible losses against Albinus right. In fact, in his efforts to salvage his forces from the massacre unfolding on his left wing, Severus himself was unseated from his horse and nearly killed. He displayed his courage, however, tearing off his cavalry cloak and brandishing his sword to rally his panicked men.The decisive maneuver of the day was led by Laetus, the commander of Severus cavalry. He was initially reluctant to join the fighting in the interest of self-preservation and with an eye to possibly securing power for himself, according to Dio and Herodian. When the cavalry saw the tide begin to turn, their charge into Albinus forces broke the resolve of the army. Severus was victorious.After Lugdunum: The Severan EmpireArch of Septimius Severus in the Forum Romanum. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Battle of Lugdunum exacted a heavy price with many thousands of Roman dead on each side. Men and horses were strewn across the battleground, while their blood poured into the rivers. According to Dio, Albinus fled the battleground and sought shelter in a house beside the Rhone. Realizing his desperate plight, he committed suicide. Severus, presented with the body of his defeated rival, gave free rein to his rage. The corpse was desecrated, he was decapitated, and the head of Albinus was dispatched to Rome to be displayed publicly.The supporters of Albinus in Rome fared little better. The emperors rage was made known in dispatches, with Severus even going so far as to praise the cruelty of Sulla, whose own victory in the civil war had been followed by senatorial bloodletting in the notorious proscriptions. Upon Severus return to Rome, while the people were rewarded with donatives and celebrations, many senators were executed and their wealth seized.The so-called Severan Tondo, Roman, c. early 3rd century CE. Source: Altes Museum, BerlinAssured of his power for now, Severus set about consolidating the status of his nascent dynasty. A Second Parthian War was fought. Celebrated on the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Forum Romanum, the war won more glory, more riches, and more territory for the empire. To confirm his commitment to imperial stability, he himself claimed Marcus Aurelius as a father, further consolidating links to the previous dynasty. Elsewhere, Severus modeled himself on Augustus, and around the imperial capital, great building works were undertaken, including the restoration of the Pantheon, and the construction of the enigmatic Septizodium, a now-lost colossal nymphaeum at the foot of the Palatine hill. However, despite his best efforts, the stability Severus sought would prove elusive. His two sons, Caracalla and Geta, were marked for succession, but the brothers had a fraught relationship. The Severan Empire would soon begin to splinter.

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