[View Article at Source]Editors Note: This is part of a new series of essays entitled Battle Studies, which seeks, through the study of military history, to demonstrate how past lessons

French and Egyptian researchers are making a "digital twin" of the Lighthouse of Alexandria in Egypt after lifting its ancient submerged blocks out of the Mediterranean Sea.

Many see the fall of the Aztec Empire and the subsequent conquest of Mexico as a result of the wit and boldness of Hernn Corts and his conquistadors endeavors. However, without the help of Tlaxcalan warriors, the Spanish never would have taken the great city of Tenochtitlan. The Tlaxcalans were the main allies of the Spaniards, and their role was crucial for numerous Spanish expeditions. Thanks to their help and loyalty, Tlaxcala became the small cornerstone of the Spanish Empire.Tlaxcala, the Old EnemyMap of the Aztec Empire as it stood in the early 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTlaxcala and Tenochtitlan, protagonists of Mexicos conquest, have histories with interesting parallels. They both were descendants of the Chichimeca, a people from the distant northwest. Chichimeca groups founded both settlements in the 14th century CE. Both Tlaxcalan and Mexica ancestors belonged to the Nahua ethnic group and spoke variants of the same language. Moreover, both were considered savages by the civilizations of the Mexican Basin and the Central Valley, and they had to fight to earn a piece of land.Tlaxcalan families arrived in the Mexican Basin following the instructions of their god, Camaxtli. They first approached Lake Texcoco but instead of stopping there, continued to the mountains in the east. That journey was not easy; the local tribes, namely Olmeca-Xicalancas, Huejotzingas, and Tepanecas, attacked the Tlaxcalans continuously, perhaps prompting the birth of their warrior spirit. They defeated their local rivals and founded Tepectipac in 1380.The expansion of Tlaxcalan power continued as they founded three other city-states: Octelulco, Tizatln, and Quiahuixtlan. Together with Tepectipac, they created the Tlaxcalan RepublicTlatoloyan Tlaxcalana confederation in which each lord had equal authority to decide on common issues while governing the internal affairs of their respective lands. Although this type of organization was not a democracy, the presence of representatives from each region debating as equals has been identified as a type of senatorial organization by modern historians, the Tlaxcala Senate.Tlaxcalan Senate(detail) by Rodrgo Gutirrez, 1875. Source: Lapham QuarterlyThe Tlaxcalans became the mightiest force in the modern Puebla-Tlaxcala mountain range. However, they had powerful and dangerous enemies to the West: Tenochtitlan, a city-state founded by another Chichimeca group, the Aztecs. The Aztecs built an alliance with the cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan while subjugating other cities and tribes, surrounding the Tlaxcalan territories.The Aztecs could not defeat Tlaxcalans directly but forced them to participate in the Flower Wars. These consisted of ritual battles with the purpose of capturing warriors for human sacrifices. The Aztecs, imposing tributes on the neighbors of the Tlaxcalans, isolated them and blocked their commercial routes, even banning the trade of certain goods, such as salt. During the 15th century, the Tlaxcalans endured commercial and political isolation while continuously preparing for a new military confrontation.Tlaxcala & the Conquistadors: Unlikely AlliesHernn Corts received by emissaries of Tlaxcala, Codex Duran, 1579, Biblioteca Nacional de de Espaa. Source: Noticonquista Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (UNAM)The enmity and the Flower Wars continued for decades. Meanwhile, in the early 16th century, people from the Mexican Basin began to hear rumors of the arrival of strangers, bearded men coming from across the sea. Neither the Aztec nor Tlaxcalans could have predicted how these foreigners would change their fates when Hernn Corts arrived with a band of conquistadors from the Spanish Antilles.Corts and his men, aware of the wealth of Tenochtitlan, reached the rough mountain range that lies between the Gulf Coast and the Mexican Basin, where the Tlaxcalans were fighting for survival against the Aztecs. The Tlaxcalans were hostile to foreigners near their territory, so they sent troops from their main allies, the Otom, to chase away the intruders. The main battle between the Otomi and the Spanish occurred on September 2, 1519. The conquistadors obtained the victory and continued on their path through the mountains.The Tlaxcalans reacted to this defeat by sending their own troops. The commander of the Tlaxcalan army was Xicotencatl Axayacatzin, called the Younger, son of Xicotencatl the Elder, lord of Tiztln. Xicotencatl tried in many ways to crush the Spaniards and their allies in a series of battles, but, despite the severe damage inflicted on the conquistadors forces, he could not break their defenses.The Spaniards revealed themselves as formidable opponents. After a final series of skirmishes, both parties acknowledged the strength of the other. The different Tlaxcalan lords discussed the situation and, against the will of the younger Xicotencatl, who perceived a threat to his people, decided to invite Corts to their lands to form an alliance.Corts, Malinche, and the Spaniards receiving gifts, including Tlaxcalan maidens, Tlaxcala Canvas, 1552. Source: Noticonquista Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico UNAMCorts traveled to Quihuiztlan, where the lord Citlalpopoca gave many gifts to the Spaniards, including offering the men a number of noble ladies hands in marriage. This tactic would be essential to establishing ties beyond politics or war. Through Malintzin as an interpreter, Corts offered friendship in the name of Emperor Charles V and vengeance against the Aztec Empire. The subsequent baptism of the Tlaxcalan lords was a symbol of the beginning of a new pact of friendship.Still, Corts had a tense relationship with Xicotencatl the younger. The Tlaxcalan general agreed to join forces with the Spaniards, but he never trusted Corts or any of the conquistadors. Despite his courage and expertise in war, key to Cortes plans, the young general never saw the Spaniards as true allies and suspected that they were using his people without intending to share the wealth or the lands conquered.In November 1519, the army arrived in Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma gave a splendid welcome to the foreigners, including the enemy Tlaxcalan warriors. Corts decided to stay in the city to search for the treasure of the Aztec, though there was no solid evidence of that fabled wealth.The presence of the strangers was displeasing for the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan, and after a massacre at the great temple on May 20th, riots started. Moctezuma was unable to contain the rebellion, and legend says that the mob stoned him to death. The Spaniards and Tlaxcalans understood that they could not stay in the city any longer and decided to escape. On the night of June 30th, as Corts troops tried to sneak out without notice, the Aztec army surprised them. Many of the Spaniards and Tlaxcalan warriors were killed, and others drowned in Lake Texcoco. The defeat, called La Noche Triste (Sad Night), was humiliatingaccording to legend, Corts wept with rage. But more importantly, it increased Xicotencatls resentment towards the Spaniards.The Battle of TenochtitlanSiege of Tenochtitlan, Lienzo de Tlaxcala, 1552. Source: Latin American Studies.orgCorts and what was left of his army tried to return to Tlaxcala. They were still close to Tenochtitlan, in a place called Otumba, when they were attacked by a large Aztec army led by Matlazincatzin. The Aztecs surrounded Corts army but could not break their defensive line. Tlaxcalan warriors told Corts that if they killed Matlazincatzin and captured the royal standard, the battle would be over. Corts followed this advice and charged with the few riders remaining against the Aztec general. When the Spaniards took the royal standard, the Aztec troops, confused and scared, retired, even though they still outnumbered Corts forces.The unlikely victory allowed Corts to return to Tlaxcala, where he began to plan an assault on Tenochtitlan. Most of the Tlaxcalan leaders agreed to participate, but Xicotencatl did not. Going against his father, he decided to break his alliance with Corts. Though not many of his own men accompanied him, from that moment on, Xicotencatl was a constant threat to Corts and the Spaniards. His rebellion lasted for less than a year. In May 1521, the Spaniards captured him. Tlaxcalan leaders and Spaniards together charged him with conspiracy and treason, and he was executed. Xicotencatls death cleared the way for a combined army of Spaniards and Tlaxcalans, with troops from other vassal peoples, such as the Otomi and Texcocan.By this time, the decisive battle was set. With the considerable number of Indigenous warriors under his command and the preparations completed, Corts returned to Lake Texcoco to seize Tenochtitlan on May 21, 1521. The Aztec defenders were first devastated by a smallpox outbreak transmitted by the Spaniards, then began to lack drinking water and food due to the blockage of their supply routes. Almost three months later, on August 13, 1521, Cuauhtmoc, the last Aztec ruler, was captured, and the city, in ruins, surrendered.At the Service of the EmperorThe Tlaxcalan lords under coats of arms, 1552. Source: Mexican GovernmentFor the Tlaxcalan, the defeat of Tenochtitlan meant the destruction of their greatest enemy, and they viewed themselves as conquerors. Corts immediately organized the reconstruction of Tenochtitlan, which would be called Mxico or Mexico City. But, much to his despair, the legendary treasure of the Aztecs was smaller than he thought and would not satisfy the emperor nor his men as a worthy spoil of war.This situation motivated Corts and other conquistadors to start a new series of expeditions to the south and north of the former Aztec territories. Once more, the Tlaxcalans agreed to join them. Soon after the fall of Tenochtitlan, in 1523, the conquest of the Mayan lands on the Yucatan Peninsula and present-day Central America began. Now under the command of Cortes former lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, the Tlaxcalans helped to establish Spanish dominion over Chiapas and Guatemala.The Spaniards relied on the Tlaxcalans both for pacification and conquest. The empires new possessions soon would constitute a territory larger than Spain itself, and the Spaniards could not maintain control without help, so Tlaxcalan families would move and settle in diverse villages to work as laborers, masons, artisans, and, of course, security forces. Meanwhile, there were immense expanses of land to the north of the Mexican Basin with the promise of gold and silver mines but also the threat of fierce and untamed tribes; expeditions into these territories needed the skill of Tlaxcalan warriors to defeat the hostile parties.Tlaxcalans and the Spanish explorer Nuo de Guzmn conquering Michoacan on Lienzo de Tlaxcala, 1552. Source: Latin American Studies.orgTo keep the Tlaxcalans on their side, the Spaniards granted many privileges to their allies. After the Christianization of the majority of Tlaxcalans circa 1524, several dispensations were approved by the Spanish Crown to protect the Tlaxcalans. While many of the conquered peoples were forced to work on encomiendaslarge estates where natives worked and paid tribute to a Spanish lordTlaxcalans preserved a high degree of autonomy and were not subject to many of the taxes imposed on the other natives.A proper city of Tlaxcala was founded in accordance with Spanish law in 1525, and in 1527, a group of Tlaxcalan representatives traveled to Europe to meet Charles V. The Crown was so pleased with the services of the natives that, in 1535, when the first viceroy arrived in Mexico, Tlaxcala received a coat of arms and the title Illustrious, Very Noble and Very Loyal. The Tlaxcalans maintained their loyalty to the Spanish Empire in the following decades. They accompanied new expeditions to the north and east of Mexico. They reached both the Pacific Coast and the Sierra Madre Heights, contributing to the exploration and colonization of territories such as Sinaloa, Zacatecas, and Durango.To emphasize their position as loyal servants, the Tlaxcalan city council ordered the creation of the Tlaxcala Canvas, a collection of paintings depicting their encounters with Spaniards, their fight against Tenochtitlan, and the subsequent campaigns to the north and south. The canvas was finished in approximately 1552. Sadly, the three original pieces are lost, but some copies survived and now represent one of the most important documents concerning the conquest and the beginning of the colonial era in Mexico.Tlaxcala and the New Mexican NationInterior view of the government palace in Tlaxcala, showcasing the Tlaxcala Mural by Desiderio Snchez Xochitiotzin. Source: ExpediaDespite their degree of autonomy and the special privileges granted by the Spanish Crown, Tlaxcala was never a rich province within the viceroyalty of New Spain. The population decreased, and the territory did not have the dynamic economy of Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, or Veracruz. Yet the pride of the Tlaxcalans remained. In 1786, when King Charles III tried to incorporate Tlaxcala into the greater Puebla territory, Tlaxcalan representatives protested, and the Tlaxcala recovered their territories and autonomy in 1793. When Spain organized a Congress with representatives from all its territories in 1809, Tlaxcala did not receive an invitation. Once more, the Tlaxcalans demanded to be present in consideration of all the services and titles conceded to their ancestors. The Spanish government agreed, and Tlaxcala sent its representatives to participate in writing the ill-fated Cadiz Constitution.Tlaxcala did not play a major role in any of the 19th-century social movements. Remarkably, its territories were not altered during the tempestuous times of the early independent Mexican governments. Both the Constitution of 1824 and that of 1857 recognized Tlaxcala as a federal sovereign state, preserving the limits of the ancestral city-states that were never conquered.Tlaxcala did not maintain the prestige it had enjoyed in the colonial era. As Mexican nationalist sentiment grew, the belief in a great Mexican nation that had been unlawfully subjugated by foreign powers became the most accepted version of history. In 1840, President Benito Jurez called the Tlaxcalans vile traitors who preferred to help the Spaniards defeat Tenochtitlan than preserve the independence of the nation. After that, resentment toward the Tlaxcalans increased, and for decades, they were counted among the enemies in Mexican history. Jurezs speech maintained a strong hold on the collective consciousness, and even a century later, in 1964, the famous writer Elena Garro wrote a tale titled La culpa es de los Tlaxcaltecas (Its the Tlaxcalans fault).Traitors?Corts, Malinche, Xicotencatl the Elder, Tlaxcalans, and Spaniards together to form their alliance. Detail of Tlaxcala Mural by Desiderio Snchez Xochitiotzin, 2000. Source: Mexico Ministry of CultureThe role of the Tlaxcalans in the defeat of Tenochtitlan and the creation of the Spanish Empire remains controversial to this day, as with many other aspects of Mexicos colonial past. Mexico as a state did not exist at the time of the conquest and Tlaxcala people did not owe any loyalty to Tenochtitlan. However, the question of whether the Tlaxcalans were traitors or not has produced a great number of political, cultural, and scholarly positions.Tlaxcala is an interesting piece of the puzzle that constitutes the development of Mexican national identity. Octavio Paz wrote about the inability of Mexicans to accept themselves and reconcile with their troubled past, with both the Indigenous and Spanish legacies forging a new nationality. Tlaxcala is a mirror for the contradictions in Mexicos understanding of its past and present.Within the most common perspective, presenting the conquest of Mexico as a tragedy, with the heroic Aztecs fighting until the very end and portraying the conquerors as vicious villains who exterminated any trace of local cultureboth quite inaccuratethe Tlaxcalans take on the role of traitors that helped to enslave their fellow Indigenous brothers and precipitated the ruin of the lands ancient glory.Tlaxcalan and Aztec warriors fighting in the Flower Wars. Detail of Tlacala Mural by Desiderio Snchez Xochitiotzin, 2000. Source: Mexico Ministry of CultureNevertheless, the people of Tlaxcala remain proud of their origin and history, despite the label of traitors lingering in the collective memory of the nation. They see themselves as part of the victorious side of a great confrontation that changed history, but they do not deny their origins. Whereas Tlaxcala keeps the coats of arms granted by King Phillip II, they still call themselves Tlaxcaltecas, and the official name of the capital city is Tlaxcala of Xicotencatl, honoring the general who fought against the Spaniards, even against the advice of the other lords.The Tlaxcalans stand out as an example of a nation that adapts to changing times without losing its connection with its origins. They endured against more powerful enemies, and they forged alliances that allowed them to prevail. In addition, they used their strength and courage to maintain a favorable position in a new political order and expand their dominion and culture. These considerations offer a new perspective on one of the most relevant and misunderstood actors in the history of Mexico.

The religious beliefs of any society both reflect and underpin the daily lives of people from all walks of life. When one culture assimilates another, there is often conflict between old and new beliefs. Japan has a long-established tradition of taking elements from other cultures and making them their own. Buddhism, the dominant religion of China, and Shinto, the indigenous folk religion of Japan, were able to meld together more easily than you might expect.The term shinbutsu shugo means combination of kami and Buddha. While a detailed explanation of Buddhism requires far more than a single article to do it justice, well touch on the basic beliefs and how the different classes in medieval Japan followed this syncretized faith.ShintoItsukushima, Shinto Shrine, photo by Nicki Eliza Schinow. Source: UnsplashShinto is the collection of folk tales and rituals native to Japanese belief, most of which are written in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. It is an animistic belief system centered around the worship of the kami, or spirits, that permeate everything in Shinto. It stresses cleanliness, reverence for nature, and ancestor veneration, but does not concern itself much with the idea of an afterlife. Shinto is about existing in the material world and dealing with the practicalities of doing so.Every object, place, person, or concept in Shinto has a kami associated with it, and offering them proper respect is the key to prosperity. One might worship at a shrine of Inari, the kami of fertility, to have a good harvest, for example. Humans could sometimes become kamiEmpress Jingus son Hachiman who ascended to become a kami of war stands out most prominentlybut Shinto does not teach that humans should aspire to such.A Primer on BuddhismThe Wheel of Life, from Bhutan, photo by Kandukuru Nagarjun. Source: FlickrBuddhism is, at its core, a philosophy of accepting the impermanence of things. Nothing lasts forever: friendships, relationships, jobs, both positive and negative circumstances, and life itself have their appointed span. Unwillingness to accept the fleeting nature of temporal happiness, in Buddhist philosophy, leads to suffering, which all beings will eventually experience through many reincarnations until they attain Nirvana through enlightenment. Beings such as gods exist, but they too are subject to this cycle of death and reincarnation, which is depicted in the image above: the six segments of the wheel are occupied by denizens of the different realms of existence. These denizens are humans, demigods, gods, ghosts, demons, and animals.The goal of Buddhism of the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) branch is for practitioners to become Bodhisattvas those who have become enlightened but retain their identity in order to help others along the path to Nirvana.This comes from following the Noble Eightfold Path taught by Siddhartha Gautama, which instructs followers in the way to conduct themselves: right view, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and focus.The Beginnings of Japanese BuddhismGreat Buddha at Kamakura, by Tokuriji Tomikichiro, 1940. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgBuddhism first arrived in Japan via traders from the mainland, because it was a major influence on Chinese culture. Around 552 CE, emissaries brought gifts to Emperor Kanmei as a gesture of good faith and an attempt to start diplomatic relations between Japan and Goryeo (Korea). The Emperor decided to consult with his advisors, and it was agreed that the Soga Clan would try the new faith as a sort of trial run. The other advisors feared that the fortunes of the country would decline if they turned away from the kami.The real driving force behind the explosion of Japanese Buddhism was Prince Shotoku, according to the Nihon Shoki. As regent to Empress Suiko, Shotoku was a devout Buddhist and sought to emulate China; at the time, China was considered the pinnacle of culture and progress in East Asia. The decentralized government of Japan, through Shotokus efforts, eventually became a merit-based bureaucracy similar to that found in China, in their efforts to emulate the celestial bureaucracy. The Imperial court funded and sponsored the construction of numerous Buddhist temples, wherein rituals such as the recitation of sutras were conducted to secure the prosperity of the nation.In order to ease the transition and pay respects to both faiths, existing Shinto shrines often would have Buddhist temple complexes built adjacent to them; kami, according to the doctrine of Buddhism, were just other beings.The Role of the Buddhist Clergy in JapanStudy, by Adachi Ginko, 1885. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgAs Buddhism spread in its various schools throughout Japan, the clergy took a more prominent role in society. Education and literacy were prized virtues, which went hand-in-hand with Confucianism. Part of the education provided by the temples included the Chinese classics, the ability to read and write, and how to do arithmetic which meant learning to use an abacus. Temples were sponsored by the local daimyo and paid for through taxes the temples themselves were tax-exempt, and as such, quickly became influential and powerful forces in society.Although monks are often stereotyped as ascetic hermits, Buddhist monks in Japan took a prominent role in shaping society. In addition to education, politics, and maintaining the temple complexes, Buddhist monks also aided in public works like building roads and developing land, providing food and shelter to those needing it, and holding prayer rituals. Monks could also act as witnesses for weddings and funerary rites.As the temples gained more power and influence, they became able to draft quasi-military forces. The warrior monks known as sohei would lend their strength to the daimyo who supported their temple, or help to oust him if they felt his aims did not further the cause of Shinto-Buddhism.Everyday Life for PeasantsAmida Hanging Scroll, 18th century. Source: The British MuseumA common saying about religion in Japan is that one is born Shinto and dies as a Buddhist this refers to the adherence that people have to both faiths. Shinto rituals are said to be used for the more joyous occasions of life such as birth and marriage, while Buddhism is for more somber occasions such as funeral rites. Of course, this is a simplification but it illustrates the idea. Japanese families were historically required to register at the local temple in order to keep accurate records of births and marriages, and they were also required to be affiliated with a temple. Part of their taxes were intended to support this temple.Homes in Japan have historically held both a kamidana (a shrine to the household kami) and a butsudan (a place of dedication to ancestors and to store religious items like prayer incense). One of the most important festivals of the year, Obon, still takes place during July and August, when the realms of the living and the dead are thought to be closest. During this time, families would light lanterns as guides for their ancestors to return to visit and offer guidance to their living descendants.Samurai and ZenMiniature Zen Garden, 1895. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgZen Buddhism, which came to prominence in the Kamakura Period, places exceptional emphasis on attaining enlightenment through meditation upon the illusory nature of reality and self-improvement through disciplined practice. The most common form of meditation is zazen, in which a person remains seated in seiza for long periods. However, any activity that demands focus can be a form of meditation if the whole of ones conscious thought is placed on it. Zen gardens, as pictured above, are another meditative activity.The martial arts of the samurai class, such as kenjutsu (swordsmanship) and kyujutsu (archery) place emphasis on deliberate actions. Motion is controlled and efficient, indeed almost meditative.The ultimate goal in martial arts is to achieve a state known as mushin, no mind. In other words, the practitioner is acting completely on trained instinct without any conscious thought or desire for a particular outcome.Another feature of Zen is the use of koan. A koan is a question that on the surface seems nonsensical: Before your mother met your father, what was your face? or Does a dog have Buddha-nature?Notable Schools of Japanese BuddhismChion-in Monastery, by Hasegawa Sadanobu, 1858. Source: Ukiyo-e.orgMany different schools of Buddhism have existed and flourished in Japan since its introduction. Here are a few of the most influential.The Tendai school came to Japan through the monk Saicho, rising to prominence during the Heian Period. Tendai has remained one of the most widely practiced branches, focusing on the Lotus Sutra, which was believed to be the Buddhas original distilled teachings. This is also where the idea of Shinto and Buddhism being combined first came to prominence.Jodo Shinshu, or True Pure Land, was popular among the lower classes: rather than spending hours a day meditatingbecause no peasant would have time for thatthe Jodo Shinshu school revolved around living ones life in accordance with Buddhist ideals and invoking the nembutsu the name of Amida Buddha, or Amitabha. It was believed that by fully concentrating on the Amida, one could be reincarnated in the Pure Land, where the conditions for attaining nirvana were ideal.Rinzai is and was the predominant school of Zen Buddhism. Popular among the samurai and nobility, Rinzai focuses on the attainment of Buddhahood by sudden enlightenment. Practices such as koans and seiza meditation are said to be conducive to this.None of these schools create any contradiction with Shinto. However, in order to reassert Japanese nationality, the Meiji Era government passed edicts to separate Buddhism from traditional Shinto, leading to State Shinto.

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