[View Article at Source]By Kelli Ballard The Fourth of July, Americas Independence Day, is a reminder of the fight for freedom from British rule. Since the first anniversary, this day has been honored

[View Article at Source]By Liberty Nation Authors Join the C5 panel as they discuss the meaning of Independence Day, whether todays youth is unwilling or unable to get into the spirit, and a whole

Astronomers have made a breakthrough by using 25 year old Hubble images to investigate a potential "rogue planet" drifting through space without a host star. When a brief gravitational microlensing event occurred in 2023, researchers discovered Hubble had photographed the same location in 1997, creating an unprecedented quarter century baseline. Finding no stellar companion in the archival data strengthened evidence for a rogue planet with mass between Earth and Saturn, demonstrating the scientific value of space telescope archives for studying these elusive worlds wandering the Galaxy alone.

Henry VII often slips through the cracks of history, being sandwiched between the controversial Richard III, a Renaissance Machiavellian prince, and Henry VIII, an impossibly charismatic and epoch-shaping monarch. But without Henry VII, there would be no Henry VIII. It was Henry VII who ended a civil war and took the English crown for the Tudors.Welsh Origins of the TudorsHenry VII Tower at Pembroke Castle, Wales. Source: Pembroke CastleObservers of English heraldry will notice that the Tudor coat of arms features a red dragon opposite a white greyhound. The dragon is a nod to the surprising Welsh ancestry of the Tudor dynasty. Mostly forgotten today, their roots in the Welsh principality meant a huge amount to the early Tudors. This was still the era of Arthurian romance and prophecy. The Tudors were not shy about seizing upon this to help legitimize their rule.It is possible to exaggerate Henry VIIs emergence from obscurity. He was, after all, the Earl of Richmond. He came from a family of Welsh lords from the distant Isle of Anglesey who claimed descent from Cadwaladr, supposedly the last ancient British king. One of his ancestors served in the court of Llewelyn the Great. The next significant Tudor was Owen, whose father participated in Owain Glyndwrs uprising against the English between 1403 and 1406.Portrait of Henry VII, unknown artist, 1505. Source: National Portrait GalleryMuch of Owens life is mythologized, and he may or may not have served in the court of Henry V of the House of Lancaster. He ended up marrying Henry Vs widow, Catherine of Valois. This meant his progeny were half-brothers of Henry VI. In the early stages of the Wars of the Roses, this positioned them to climb the courtly hierarchy and accumulate forfeited Yorkist lands. Both Edmund and Jasper Tudor became senior earls in the royal court. The former was made Earl of Richmond and was to marry Margaret Beaufort, daughter of the Duke of Somerset and a descendant of Edward III.Henry in Exile: Brittanys CourtHenry VI enthroned, from the Talbot Shrewsbury Book in Royal MS 15 E VI, folio 405r, 1444. Source: British LibraryThe Tudors walked a tightrope in the very early stages of the Wars of the Roses between loyalty to their Lancastrian half-brother and the reality of the rising power of Richard of York, who claimed protectorship over the kingdom during Henry VIs mental breakdown. When the king recovered, civil war broke out. Edmund Tudor was captured defending forts in South Wales in Henrys name and died in captivity. Edmunds young son, Henry, and his mother fell under the wardship of the Yorkist William Herbert during the reign of Edward IV, Richard of Yorks son, who defeated the Lancastrians in 1461. Edmund briefly attended court when Henry VI returned in 1470 but went into exile when Edward retook the kingdom the following year.The next few years were tenuous for Henry. Not only was he now a noted Lancastrian, but via his mother, he had a distant but real claim to the throne. This made him a target for the Yorkist regime. He went into the protection of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. He and his uncle Jasper were rotated between various forts in the south of the dukedom and its capital, Nantes. His mother remained in England, trying to arrange circumstances for a possible return. It was during this time that a potential marriage to one of Edward IVs daughters was first suggested.Largoet Castle in Brittany, one of Henry VIIs temporary residences. Source: Golfe du Morbihan Vannes TourismeHenrys time in Brittany was precarious. Edward IV made constant entreaties to try and secure Jasper and Henry. Although they started life in the duchy with 500 Lancastrian allies, these were gradually stripped away until they were guarded only by Breton soldiers. Still, it was at this time that Henry learned the necessities of European noble life. He hunted, took part in contests, practiced his archery, and learned court form. Observers complimented his manners and mastery of French. Its likely he also picked up Breton, a language similar to Welsh.Henry Evades CaptureCathedral of St Vincent, St Malo, Brittany, where Henry Tudor hid from Yorkist envoys. Source: St Malo TourismIn 1476, not for the last time, Francis II fell ill. His advisors reached an agreement with the Yorkists and handed Henry over to English delegates who prepared to take him back. There are claims that Edward IV actually planned to marry Henry to his daughter, as Henrys mother had planned. The king was confident that his own sons would succeed him and the Tudor/Lancastrian claim would finally be neutralized. Whatever the truth, Henry refused to go until he was coerced. Thus, on a cold November day at the Breton port of Saint-Malo, Henry looked out across the sea towards his home but also to imprisonment and possibly death. Out of desperation, he faked stomach cramps. The English envoys fell for it long enough that they missed the tide.Forced to remain for a little longer, Henry was saved by circumstance. A Breton noble arrived with the message that Francis had recovered. Henry took full advantage of the confusion, slipped away, and ran. He was chased through the streets to St Vincents Cathedral and claimed sanctuary. The towns citizens rallied and blocked the entrance to his pursuers. The envoys attempted to wait him out but eventually returned to Westminster. Henry had survived.Later that year, the French kingLouis XImade his own attempt to secure Henry and Jasper, presumably to use them as bargaining chips against England. However, his efforts were to no avail. He tried again in 1477 and 1482, offering greater sums of money and military support. Francis and the Tudors stood firm.Plantagenet AlliancesPortrait of Richard III, unknown, c. 1510. Source: Society of Antiquaries of LondonIn 1483, Edward IV died, and his brother, Richard III, usurped the throne from his children on spurious claims of illegitimacy. As it became clear that Edwards sons, the Princes in the Tower, had been murdered, Henry Tudors tenuous, distant claim grew in significance. He now became an important pawn for both the duke of Brittany and the king of France.As a potential rival claimant, and a cousin of Louis XI, he was important leverage for the Bretons to prevent an English accommodation with the French king, which might threaten their ducal independence. Henry was politically useful but practically weak. He was utterly dependent on the hospitality of the Bretons. He must have feared that, at any moment, events could turn in and see him handed over to the Yorkists.However, Henry wasnt immediately at the forefront of issues in England, where the focus was on Richard. It is unclear whether the duke of Buckingham, Henry Stafford, the main conspirator of the 1483 rebellion, was revolting in Henrys name or in his own. We do know, however, that Margaret Beaufort, Henrys mother, began pushing her son as a candidate. Regardless, a series of events now combined to push Henry to prominence.What is often missed in the narrative of these months is the change of circumstances in France as well as England. In August, Louis XI died and so did the immediate threat to the power of the Breton dukes. Brittany was now free to openly oppose Richard, possibly in spite of his refusal to provide military aid against the French, but also perhaps because Edward Vnow presumed murderedhad been betrothed to the dukes daughter. Duke Francis supported Henry with an attempted naval expedition to coincide with Buckinghams revolt.Elizabeth of York, unknown artist, c. late 16th century. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonDespite bad weather, Henry and his fleet eventually reached the coast of either Plymouth or Poole. Henry did not land and instead retreated to avoid capture. His failure to land, and the rebellions failure, may have played in his favor. This left him as the last remaining figurehead against the regime. Hundreds of sympathizersunited more by their opposition to Richard than any devotion to the Tudor claimflocked to Brittany. They were encouraged by Edward IVs widows family, the Woodvilles. Shakespeare had the widowed queen tell loyal nobles to cross the seas, and live with Richmond, from the reach of hell. By Christmas, Henry and his counselors had drafted and sworn to a manifesto, with Henry vowing in Rennes Cathedral to marry Elizabeth of York, sister of the Princes in the Tower, to strengthen his claim and unite the Plantagenet factions.Henry Becomes a Serious ContenderHornfleur, Normandy, from which Henry Tudor set sail for Wales. Source: Normandy Tourism OfficeDespite the momentum, things were still on a knife-edge for the Tudors. Political chaos in Brittany in the following year led to the duke effectively being overthrown by a regency, which proceeded to secure a truce with Richard and agree to hand over Henry. In October, Henry was forced to flee to France. His prospects now looked bleak. Although the French were in a quasi-war with Richard, the court was too absorbed in its own political infighting to consider an invasion of England. Henry needed to demonstrate that he could command loyalty and that he was a serious contender.Then, in November, luck turned again in Henrys favor. John de Vere, the Lancastrian Earl of Oxford, who had been imprisoned in Hammes Castle in the Pale of Calais, managed to persuade his Yorkist gaolors to defect to Henry. The castle itself was retaken by loyal Calais troops, but not before Henrys own military intervention secured the escape of much of its garrison for future use. Now, he could prove he was capable of inspiring and leading soldiers and appealing to Lancastrians and Yorkists alike. This was supplemented by a flow of further defections and funds channeled from his mother.Richard issued a proclamation against Henry and Jasper in December and started preparing defenses. Henry was, finally, a serious threat to the Yorkists and a king-in-waiting. In March 1485, the political situation in France stabilized enough under a new regent, Anne de Beaujeu, that it could throw its financial and military backing behind Henry and his small army to depose Richard.Anne de Beaujeu, Regent of France, c. 1475-1500. Source: LouvreHenry still faced an uphill task. First, he had to cross the channel, avoiding Richards new Breton allies and the English fleet. Then, he had to land and hope he could rally enough support and men to challenge the Yorkist army. He would likely be outnumbered and against the full resources of the English state. The Tudor plan was to repeat Henry IV and Edward IVs trick of landing in their heartlands, in their case, Pembrokeshire in Wales, and hope that the old ties of loyalty would be enough to rally support. In fact, they had already received intelligence of loyalty from their Welsh lands, where poems and songs were already being written proclaiming him as the returned Arthur. Nevertheless, they would have to engage Richard as quickly as possible. The longer they waited, the more time Richard would have to amass reinforcements and secure territory.The Return of the KingMill Bay, Wales, Henry Tudors landing spot in 1485. Source: Pembrokeshire National ParkThe Tudor plans worked. After avoiding the Breton and English fleets, Henry landed in Mill Bay at the south-west tip of Wales, kissed the soil, and recounted a psalm. His army pointedly disembarked with banners bearing both the Cross of St George and the Red Dragon. Again, he played to his Welshness, promising the Welsh gentry that he would free our Principality of such miserable servitude. The Tudor army swelled as it marched across south Wales and into central England. Richards officers either declined to intervene or outrightly defected. As planned, the army made rapid progress, marching as much as 20 miles or more a day across Wales before passing into Shropshire. Throughout, Henry was furiously writing letters and dispatching messengers as he tried to rally support from key nobles like the Stanleys.They engaged Richards larger army at Bosworth in Leicestershire. Henry was outnumbered, but the inactivity of the Earl of Northumberlandfor reasons still debatedand his entreaties to the Stanleys helped ensure their late intervention in his favor and Richards defeat. In hindsight, this isnt surprising. Lord Thomas Stanley was not only Henry VIIs stepfather, but the family had been treated poorly by a suspicious Richard, holding Thomas son hostage to secure his loyalty.Significantly, it was a Welshman who dealt the likely deadly blow to Richards skull. The discovery of Richards remains in 2012 and the accompanying head wound has served to add veracity to sources about the battle that were previously assumed to be unreliable. Therefore, we can perhaps now be fairly confident that the dead kings circlet was indeed found and brought to Henry by Lord Stanley, signifying the handover of power.Stain glass commemoration of the Battle of Bosworth Field. Source: St James Church, Sutton CheneyThrough his own resourcefulness, determination and cunning, Henry navigated the chaos of the Wars of the Roses. Yet, there he stood, as one foreign source put it, without power, without money, without right to the crown of England, and without any reputation but what his person and deportment obtained for him.Securing the ThronePortrait of Henry VII, unknown artist, c. 1597-1618. Source: National Portrait Gallery, LondonIts easy to assume, with hindsight, that the rise of Henry VII and his dynasty were inevitable. In fact, insecurity and the bloody memory of the Wars of the Roses made Henrys first years incredibly uncertain. Henry therefore moved cautiously and generously in his early years, benefitting his supporters but also relegitimizing the Princes in the Tower and his new wife and excusing former Ricardians who fully submitted. A Yorkist rebellion, claiming the pretender Lambert Simnel as the son of the elder brother of Richard III, the Duke of Clarence, erupted out of Ireland in 1487. There were further rebellions in 1489 in Yorkshire and, from 1490, there were periodic landings by Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury (one of the Princes in the Tower). One of the Stanleys, William, who had become a key figure in Henrys own household, was found to have money likely meant for Warbecks cause and was executed.Nevertheless, Henrys early generosity and active, but not always popular, government ensured his survival. His broad policy of peace and trade abroad, justice at home, and non-interference with loyal nobility meant that his reign just about had a wide enough base of support to endure and overcome threats from within. The real story of Henry VII, then, is not his unlikely, heroic and captivating rise but his altogether quite forgotten and relatively bland time at the summit. Perhaps it is precisely that forgettability, compared to the melodrama of previous decades and the religious turmoil that was to follow, that is his ultimate tribute.

In addition to his superhuman strength and knack for achieving the impossible, the legendary hero Heracles was known for his incredible libido. Heracles is said to have fathered numerous children as he traveled the ancient world, battling monsters, conquering armies, and outsmarting gods and Kings. These children and their descendants became known as the Heracleidae, the children of Heracles. While some achieved greatness, others only survived as names on a list in their fathers biography. Discover more about the children of Heracles and their impact on mythology and ancient history.Daughters of ThespiusThe Daughters of Thespius, by Gustave Moreau, 1853. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHeracless first and perhaps most remarkable feat of procreation occurred when he was ordered to slay the monstrous Lion of Cithaeron at just 18 years of age.The lion emerged near Mount Cithaeron and began devouring the cattle belonging to his adoptive father, Amphitryon, and King Thespius of Thespiae. Thespius offered to host Heracles, who hunted the lion for 49 days and defeated the beast on the 50th day.In Thespia, killing the lion was not Heracless most impressive feat. As a reward for his services, Thespius sent one of his 50 daughters to sleep with Heracles each night that he hunted the lion.Each daughter became pregnant and gave birth to a son. In some versions, Heracles slept with all the daughters in one night; the oldest and youngest daughters each gave birth to twins. There were only 49 sons in another account, as one of the daughters refused to sleep with Heracles. As a result, she was punished by becoming a virgin priestess at the sanctuary of Heracles in Thespiae.Thespiuss grandsons did not achieve the same fame as their father. As is the case with nearly all his children, Heracles did not play an active role in the lives of his 50 sons in Thespiae. The only involvement Heracles had was sending a message to King Thespius years later, after his labors. He instructed the King to keep seven of his sons in Thespiae, send three to Thebes, and have the remaining 40 accompany Heracless friend Iolaus to establish a colony on the island of Sardinia.Children of MegaraDer rasende Herkules (Raging Hercules), by Alessandro Turchi, 1620. Source: Alte PinakothekAfter his adventure in Thespiae, Heracles became a celebrated hero in Thebes after defending its citizens against the army of King Erginus of Orchomenus. As a reward, Theban King Creon offered Heracles his eldest daughter, Megaras hand in marriage. Heracles and Megara settled into a happy marriage and had multiple children. Although sources vary on the exact number of children, the four most commonly named are Therimachus, Creontiades, Ophitus, and Deicoon.Unfortunately, these children were not destined for greatness: fate had determined that they, along with their mother, would tragically die at the hands of their father while Heracles was under Heras curse of madness. This event ultimately led Heracles to embark on his famous twelve labors to atone for their deaths. In nearly all versions of the story, the children of Megara are destined to die, but there are differences in how their tragic tale is told. In some versions, Megara does not die but instead divorces Heracles after their childrens deaths and remarries Heracless friend and nephew, Iolaus. In Euripidess play Heracles and the Roman adaptation Hercules Furens by Seneca the Younger, the children are killed by their father after he completes all twelve of his labors.Children of OmphaleThe love-sick Hercules being hen-pecked by Omphale, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1602. Source: RKD Netherlands Institute for Art HistoryAfter completing his twelve labors and atoning for the murder of his first family, Heracles sought a new wife. However, his search led him back to where he started after he lost his temper and killed a guest, Iphitus, the brother of Iole, the woman he had hoped to marry. Killing a guest was a severe crime, and Heracles went to the Delphic oracle, who instructed him to atone by serving Queen Omphale of Lydia as an enslaved person for three years. Heracles performed various dangerous and degrading tasks for Omphale. She also enjoyed wearing his lion skin cloak and delighted in forcing Heracles to dress as a woman.Heracles and Omphale eventually became lovers and married. They had two sons, Agelaus and Tyrsenus. Agelaus became the ruler of Lydia and was the ancestor of King Croesus, who ruled in the 6th century BCE. He was known as one of the wealthiest rulers of his time, consulted the famed Solon of Athens, and lost his kingdom to Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid or Persian Empire. Tyrsenus is said to have invented the trumpet, then left Lydia, drove the Pelasgians out of Italy, and settled in the region of the Tyrrhenians in Etruscan Italy.It is believed that Omphale was not Heracless only lover during his enslavement. Before marrying Omphale, Heracles had a son called Cleodaeus or Alcaeus with a woman named Iardanus, who was also enslaved and working for Omphale.According to Herodotus, the descendants of this child founded a long-lasting Heracleidae Dynasty that ruled the city of Sardis in Lydia.Children of DeianiraDeianira, by Evelyn De Morgan, 1878. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring his twelfth labor in the underworld, Heracles encountered the spirit of his friend, Meleager of Calydon, who had perished during the Calydonian boar hunt. Heracles asked if there was anything he could do for his friend in the land of the living, and Meleager asked him to marry his sister, Deianira. Despite taking several years, Heracles eventually fulfilled Meleagers last wish and married Deianira.The couple had a loving relationship but their marriage, combined with natural insecurity, pride, and a centaurs desire for revenge, would lead to the deaths of both Deianira and Heracles. Before their deaths, Deianira and Heracles had five children: four sons, Hyllus, Ctesippus, Glenus, and Onites, and a daughter, Macaria. The eldest son, Hyllus, became the leader of the Heracleidae, and very little is detailed about his three brothers. At the same time, his sister Macaria plays a significant role in Euripidess play Heracleidae.Phyllis and Demophoon, by Edward Burne-Jones, 1870. Source: Birmingham Museums TrustKing Eurystheus of Mycenae, who organized Heracless twelve labors, hated Heracles, and this hatred also extended to his children. Before they were born, Zeus had decreed that Heracles would rule over Mycenae but due to Heras trickery, Eurystheus became the ruler instead. Eurystheuss hostility arose from his fear that Heracles or his children would take Mycenae from him. After Heracless death, Eurystheus dispatched armies to find Heracles and Deianiras children to kill or arrest them. The might of Eurystheuss army resulted in the children being denied protection in every city they sought refuge in until they finally found sanctuary in Athens under the rule of King Demophon, son of Theseus.When Eurystheus threatened to invade Athens, Demophon refusedandprepared for battle with Heracless sons. Before the fight began, an oracle told Demophon they would win if they sacrificed a noble virgin girl for Persephone. Demophon refused to force any noble Athenian women to undergo the sacrifice, but Heracles and Deianiras daughter, Macaria, volunteered. In Euripidess play Heracleidae, Macaria, also known as the Maiden, explains her decision and the challenges of finding happiness in her situation.Thanks to Macarias sacrifice and the bravery of Demophon and Heracless sons, Eurystheus and his army were defeated.The Return of the HeracleidaePhotograph of Fresco of Hercules holding his infant son Hyllus and Deianira meeting the centaur Nessos, by Chappsnet, 2024. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter defeating Eurystheus, Hyllus and his brothers invaded the Peloponnese to reclaim their fathers birthright. They conquered most cities but had to retreat due to a plague. Hyllus sought refuge in Thessaly with Aegimius, King of the Dorians. Aegimius rewarded him with a portion of his kingdom because Heracles had helped Aegimius defeat the Lapiths years earlier. Aegimius adopted Hyllus and appointed him his successor, beginning the Heracleidaes rule over the Dorians.Hyllus sought advice from the Oracle of Delphi, who instructed him to wait for the third fruit and invade the Peloponnese through a narrow sea passage. Hyllus interpreted this as waiting for three years and then invading the Peloponnese through the isthmus of Corinth. Three years later, Hyllus and his allies invaded and fought against Atreus, the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, who had taken control of Mycenae in Eurystheuss absence. Hyllus faced King Echemus of Tegea in single combat and died, leading to the retreat of the Heracleidae armies.Over the following decades, Hylluss son Cleodaeus and grandson Aristomachus attempted but failed to invade the peninsula. Hylluss great-grandsons, Temenus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, returned to the Delphic oracle to learn why their forbears had failed. The Oracle revealed a misunderstanding of the prophecy: the third fruit referred to three generations, not three years, and the narrow sea passage was the straits of Rhium, not the isthmus of Corinth.The brothers started building a navy for the fifth Heracleidae invasion of the Peloponnese. Still, their fleet was destroyed, and Aristodemus was killed because a Heracleidae named Hippote had murdered a soothsayer named Carnus.Battle of Marathon, by Georges Rochegrosse, 1859. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTemenus returned to the oracle, who instructed him to offer a sacrifice, exile Hippotes for ten years, and find a three-eyed man to lead the invasion. Temenus recruited a one-eyed man named Oxylus, riding a two-eyed horse, whom he believed to be the prophesied three-eyed man. The Heracleidae rebuilt their fleet, launched an invasion, and conquered Mycenae after defeating Tisamenus, son of Orestes. The Heracleidae then divided the peninsula, with Temenus taking Argos, Cresphontes taking Messene, and the twin sons of Aristodemus taking Lacedaemon, becoming the first dual kings of Sparta. Oxylus was given to Elis for his contribution.The Dorian conquest of the Peloponnese was known as the return of the Heracleidae. In ancient Greece, noble families often claimed a hero as an ancestor, and Dorian nobles in the Peloponnese claimed Heracles and his descendants as their own. The absence of any mention of the return of the Heracleidae by Hesiod or Homer suggests that the invasion may have some basis in actual history. Moreover, it is likely that the Dorians justified their invasion based on the stories connecting them to Heracles and the Heracleidae. However, the extent of this is uncertain.Divine ChildrenHebe Giving Drink to the Eagle of Jupiter, by Gavin Hamilton, 1767. Source: Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford UniversityAfter Heracles died, he ascended to Olympus and became a god. On Olympus, Heracles married Heras daughter Hebe, her cupbearer, and goddess of youth. Together, Heracles and Hebe had two sons, Alexiares and Anicetus. The brothers became guardian deities responsible for protecting the fortifications of towns and citadels. They also became the gatekeepers of Olympus, a position often attributed to their father, Heracles.Another divine child of Heracles was Eucleia, the personification of glory and good repute. She is the daughter of Heracles and Myrto, Patrocluss sister. Eucleia is one of the three younger Charites or Graces, a group of goddesses who preside over charm, joy, beauty, and many other pleasures of life.TlepolemusKrater of the madness of Heracles, Asteas, between 350 and 320 BCE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTlepolemus, the son of Heracles and Astyoche (daughter of King Phylas of Ephyra) was a prominent figure among the Heracleidae. After being exiled for killing Licymnius, Heracless uncle, Tlepolemus established a kingdom on the island of Rhodes. According to Homer, Tlepolemus led a fleet in the Trojan War and was ultimately killed by the Trojan hero Sarpedon.TelephusHerakles and Telephos, unknown, 2nd century CE. Source: LouvreThe hero Telephus, the son of Heracles and Auge of Tegea, is described as the most similar to his father in strength and ability. Multiple, often contradictory accounts of Telephuss life exist. Still, they all share a typical narrative journey ending with him becoming king of Mysia, fighting Achilles, and guiding the Greeks to Troy.Telephuss mother, Auge, was a virgin priestess of Athena when Heracles seduced her. In some versions, her father, King Aleus, had forced her to become a priestess because a prophecy claimed his grandchild would murder him. Regardless, the scandal of a chaste priestess falling pregnant was too much, and Auge was exiled from Tegea. In every version, she ends up in Mysia in northwestern Anatolia, where the childless King Teuthras marries her and adopts Telephus, or else adopts Auge as his daughter. In one version, Aleus hires a man named Nauplius to drown Auge on her journey to Mysia, but she gives birth to Telephus on the side of Mount Parthenion. Afterward, Nauplius decided to sell her to Teuthras.In one popular version of the story, Auge leaves the newborn Telephus on the side of Mount Parthenion. Telephus is saved by a deer that nurses him until a herdsman finds him and takes him to King Corythus, who raises him as his son. When Telephus grows up, he consults an oracle to find his mother. The oracle directs him to Mysia, where he is reunited with Auge. Teuthras then adopted him and appointed him the heir of Mysia.Telephus recovering from his fatal wound with bandaged thigh and carrying Orestes, by S.W. Kelly, 1937. Source: Wellcome CollectionHowever, Auge and Telephus are unaware of their relationship in many accounts. When Telephus arrives, Teuthras asks him to defeat his enemy, Idas. In return, Teuthras promises to give Telephus his kingdom and his adoptive daughter Auges hand in marriage. With the help of his best friend Parthenopeus, son of Atalanta, Telephus defeats Idas and receives Teuthrass reward. Auge, who still loves Heracles, refuses to marry Telephus and tries to kill him in their wedding chambers. The gods intervene by sending a snake to stop Auge. Telephus then attempts to kill Auge, but she calls for Heracles to save her, leading them to realize they are mother and son.In time, Telephus took over as King of Mysia, and shortly afterward, the Trojan War began. Due to their proximity, the Greek army mistook Mysia for Troy and attacked the city. However, Telephus, blessed with his fathers strength and talent, easily defended Mysia and forced the Greeks to retreat. As the Greeks fled, Dionysus caused Telephus to trip on a vine as punishment for not worshiping him properly. When Telephus fell, Achilles wounded him with a spear in his thigh. While the Greeks struggled to find Troy, Telephuss wound refused to heal and began to fester. He consulted the oracle of Apollo, who told him that only his attacker could heal him.Telephus (son of Hercules) cured of a potentially fatal wound with some rust from Achilles spear, with which he had originally been wounded, Pierre Brebiette, 17th century. Source: Wellcome CollectionTelephus traveled to Greece in search of Achilles. In some versions of the story, he meets Clytemnestra, who suggests he kidnap King Agamemnons son, Orestes, to force the Greeks to help him. However, the abduction proved unnecessary as the Greeks were happy to help Telephus once they learned he was also a native Greek. They agreed to let Achilles heal Telephus if he guided the Greek forces to Troy. Telephus agreed, and Achilles healed the injury by scraping rust from the spear he had used into the festering wound. The Greeks invited Telephus to join them, but he declined because his wife, Astyoche or Laodicea, was the sister or daughter of Priam, the King of Troy. However, Telephuss son, Eurypylus, decided to join the Trojans and died fighting during the war.The Eponymous Children of HeraclesPhotograph of Ruins of the ancient city of Amathus (Cyprus) by Bayreuth2009, 1999. Source: Wikimedia CommonsMany of Heracless children were believed to be the eponymous founders of cities, kingdoms, and societies around the ancient world. For instance, the ancient city of Amathus in Cyprus was thought to have been founded by Heracless son Amathes. Mantua in Italy was named after Hreacless daughter, Manto. The ancient town of Olynthus was named after the son of Heracles and Bolbe, a water nymph who lived in Lake Volvi.In Greek and Berber mythology, Sufax was the son of Heracles and the goddess and queen of Libya Tinjis. Sufax founded the city of Tangier, which he named after his mother. Heracles met Tinjis after defeating her husband, Antaeus, in a wrestling match during his tenth labor. During the same labor, while Heracles herded Geryons cattle from Iberia to Greece, he passed through the land of the Celts and met a local princess named Celtine. The princess fell in love with Heracles, stole some of his cattle, and refused to return them until they slept together and had a son, Celtus, the ancestral founder of the Celtic people.The children of Heracles traveled far and wide; for instance, Heracless favored daughter, Pandai, was granted rulership of a kingdom in India by her father. According to Pliny the Elder, Pandai became the founding member of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ruled in southern India for centuries.Photograph of Echidna, Parco dei Mostri, Bomarzo, Italy by Daderot. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOne fascinating story involves Heracles encountering a half-woman, half-snake creature believed to be the mother of monsters, Echidna, while searching for his horse. Echidna had Heracless horse and offered to return it to him if they slept together. Heracles agreed and was given not only his horse but three sons.Echidna asked Heracles what he wanted to do with their three new sons, and he gave her a bow and a belt with a golden buckle. Heracles then told her that the first son, who could bend the bow and put it on the belt, would become ruler of the lands, and the other two would be exiled.Heracles and Echidnas three sons were Agathyrsus, Gelonus, and Scythes. In time, Scythes, son of Heracles and Echidna, became the founding ruler of the legendary Scythians by bending the bow and putting on the belt while his brothers were exiled.

According to the Arthurian legends, King Arthur was mortally wounded at the infamous Battle of Camlann. This was the culmination of a civil war between Arthur and his nephew, Mordred. The historicity of this legendary account is seriously questioned by modern scholars. Nevertheless, the Arthurian legends are generally set in real locations. Therefore, regardless of the historicity of the battle or even of Arthur himself, the issue of where Camlann was is a legitimate area of investigation. Many scholars have tried to answer this. What does the evidence indicate?What Was the Battle of Camlann?The Death of Arthur, by John Mulcaster Carrick, 1862. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the Arthurian legends, the Battle of Camlann is the climax of Arthurs civil war against Mordred. According to most versions of the legend, King Arthur left Britain to fight in Gaul for some time. While he was away, Mordred tried to usurp his throne. Mordred was originally portrayed as Arthurs nephew, although later versions turn him into Arthurs own son. In any case, after Arthur heard of Mordreds usurpation, he rushed back to Britain.Several battles were fought between Arthur and Mordred. However, this process was predominantly marked by Mordred fleeing as Arthur pursued him. Eventually, the two armies had their final clash at a place called Camlann. Here, a fierce and bloody battle took place, resulting in the defeat of Mordreds army. It was also crushing for Arthurs own army, with Arthur himself being mortally wounded. This battle thus led to the end of Arthurs legendary reign, according to medieval accounts.The Battle of Camlann in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum BritanniaeAnnales Cambriae with an entry for the Battle of Camlann, in Harleian MS 3859, fol. 190r., c. 1100-1130 CE. Source: British LibraryThe earliest reference to the Battle of Camlann is in the Annales Cambriae, a 10th-century chronicle written in Latin. This simply tells us that it was fought and that it involved Arthur and Medraut (Mordred). It does not tell us anything more than this, although it does refer to the battle as a gueith. The use of this Welsh word implies that stories about this battle were already well-known within Welsh tradition prior to the composition of the Annales Cambriae.However, the earliest source that provides a detailed account of the battle is Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written in c. 1137. According to his account, the initial battle between Arthur and Mordred occurred at Richborough. Arthur then pursued Mordreds army to Winchester, where a siege took place. Finally, they reached Camlann. Geoffreys narrative and spelling identify this as the Camel River in Cornwall.Therefore, the earliest known identification of Camlann says that it was in the West Country. However, what do modern scholars believe about the location of this battle site?CamboglannaCastlesteads House, on the site of the ancient fort of Camboglanna. Source: Wikimedia CommonsModern scholars generally reject any connection between the place names Camel and Camlann. A popular suggestion, which does have some academic support, is that Camlann should be identified as Camboglanna. This was the name of a Roman fort along Hadrians Wall. It is at modern-day Castlesteads.The name of this site makes it an attractive possible location for the site of Camlann. It was common for the consonant cluster mb to be reduced to just m in Welsh, and the g also had a tendency to disappear in certain cases. Scholars agree that Camboglanna could indeed have evolved into Camlann in Welsh over time.The problem is that this name should have actually taken the form Camglann by the time the Annales Cambriae was written in the 10th century. Since no 10th-century manuscript of the Annales Cambriae is known to exist today, it is possible that a later scribe simply modernized the spelling. Nonetheless, this linguistic issue does weaken the theory.What the Welsh Tradition RevealsCulhwch and Olwen referencing the Battle of Camlann in lines 4 and 7, in Jesus College MS 111, fol. 202r., c. 1382-1425 CE. Source: Bodleian LibrariesIt is worth considering what Welsh tradition claims about the Battle of Camlann. Although it does not provide any extensive details about the battles location, it does provide some interesting information. For example, the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen, likely written in c. 1100, records three alleged survivors of the battle.One of them was Morfran ap Tegid. His father, Tegid, is associated with Penllyn in northwest Wales. Another was Cynwyl, who appears to be connected to Abergele in North Wales, along with several locations along the western coast of Wales, from the north to the south. The third survivor is Sandde, who is generally associated with the region between North Wales and the border of Scotland.This information alone does not provide us with enough information to firmly place Camlann in any particular location. Nonetheless, it is notable that their areas of activity seem to generally overlap around North Wales.St Petrocs Church, Llanbedrog, where the legendary spear of Petroc was supposedly kept. Source: Alan Fryer on GeographAnother figure elsewhere recorded as a survivor of the Battle of Camlann was Saint Petroc. Unlike the three survivors mentioned in Culhwch and Olwen, Petroc is mainly associated with Cornwall and the South in general. Nevertheless, there is a site dedicated to him in Gwynedd, northeast Wales. At Llanbedrog, there was a relic called Gwayw Pedrog, which translates to Petrocs Spear. The legend about Petroc surviving the Battle of Camlann specifically says that he survived it through the might of his spear.Therefore, of all the locations with which Petroc is associated, it is his dedication in northwest Wales that has the clearest connection to the Battle of Camlann.Furthermore, the Stanzas of the Graves connects the grave of a character named Osfran with Camlann. As early as the 12th century, the Welsh poet Llywelyn Fardd I mentioned Osfran in association with a church in Tywyn, Merionethshire. This is in northwest Wales, not too far from the aforementioned Llanbedrog.Camlann in WalesView of Camlan-Uchaf, the probable site of the Battle of Camlann. Source: Ian Capper in GeographBased on this evidence, some scholars have argued that the Battle of Camlann occurred in northwest Wales. Similarly, there are other scholars who hold that the medieval Welsh believed that Camlann was in that area. As it happens, there was indeed a place with essentially that exact name in Wales. Today, the place is called Camlan Uchaf. The site of the Battle of Camlann is often recorded with only one n in medieval Welsh manuscripts, matching the spelling of this places name, Camlan Uchaf. This is southeast of Dolgellau in northwest Wales.There is also a location named Afon Gamlan not too far away, northwest of Dolgellau. On the basis of some of the aforementioned evidence, scholar Patrick Sims-Williams suggested that Llywelyn Fardd I considered one of these locations to have been the Camlann of Arthurian tradition. The local place name evidence also supports Camlan Uchaf as the more likely of the two. To provide just one of several examples, there is a place called Bryn Cleifion, meaning Hill of the Wounded.Red Book of Hergest showing aber temys in the center of the text, in Jesus College MS 111, fol. 51v., c. 1382-1425 CE. Source: Bodleian LibrariesThis location is consistent with the evidence regarding the supposed survivors at Camlann in Culhwch and Olwen. Furthermore, it appears to be supported by some Welsh translations of Geoffrey of Monmouths narrative about the battle. Regarding the site where Mordred and Arthur had their first clash after Arthur tried to return to Britain, Geoffreys location of Richborough is obviously unhistorical. It was thoroughly within Saxon territory in the 6th century. However, some Welsh translations rendered this place name Aber Temys. This refers to the mouth of the Thames. Again, this is obviously unhistorical.However, it is possible that the text should have read Aber Teifi, since the letters m and f were often exchanged in medieval Welsh manuscripts. This was the site of a prominent port on the west coast of Wales, where Cardigan now is. If this is where Mordred and Arthur had their initial conflict, then a route inland and along the nearest Roman road (which goes up the side of Wales) would have taken them almost directly past Camlan Uchaf.Without confirming the historicity of the legendary battle itself, this interpretation makes geographical sense of the tradition.The Likely Location of King Arthurs Legendary Battle of CamlannView of Camlan Uchaf, the probable site of the Battle of Camlann. Source: Peter McDermott on GeographIn conclusion, we cannot say with complete certainty where the Battle of Camlann really took place. Nevertheless, there is strong evidence that it occurred in modern-day Camlan Uchaf. As well as having exactly the right name for this battle site, local place names referring to slaughter support this identification. It also harmonizes well with the fact that the survivors of Camlann mentioned in Culhwch and Olwen were broadly associated with western or northern Wales. The evidence from Petroc, another alleged survivor, also supports a location in northwest Wales, as does the tradition about Osfran.Finally, we have also seen that Welsh translations of Geoffrey of Monmouths narrative arguably support this identification as well. The obviously incorrect Aber Temys in reference to Arthur and Mordreds initial conflict could be plausibly interpreted as a mistake for Aber Teifi, where Cardigan now is. From there, a logical route taken by a fleeing army would lead them very close to Camlan Uchaf. Therefore, the weight of evidence strongly supports the conclusion that this was the site of Arthurs legendary Battle of Camlann.

Throughout its incredible history, there has seldom been a time in China when the Chinese rulers themselves have been overthrown at the hands of foreign invaders. That is what makes the Yuan Dynasty so interestingand so culturally different from other famous dynasties in Chinese history such as the Song, Tang, Han, and Qing. The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) also saw huge developments in warfare, as well as the birth of some of medieval Chinas most incredible figures. In this article, we will explore a brief history of the Yuan Dynasty China and the wonders that it had to offer.The Origins of the Yuan DynastyKublai Khan, by Araniko, 1294, found in Portraits from the Nanxun Hall. Source: National Palace, TaipeiThe beginning of the Yuan Dynasty has been a point of contention for historians for centuriesdid it start in 1271 or 1279? There are several reasons for both answers.Prior to 1271, the Mongols had controlled areas of northern China for decadesparticularly since the reign of Genghis Khan. It was Kublai Khan (a grandson of the great Genghis) who led the Mongols to conquer China and created the Yuan Dynasty (meaning Great Mongol State), announcing it in traditional Han style in 1271. This is why 1271 is often given as the official start date of the Yuan Dynasty: the Song Dynasty (which had ruled in China since 960 CE) had been formally overthrown by the Mongols, and the Yuan Dynasty was proclaimed.So why should any other date be considered? Well, following Kublai Khans proclamation of the Yuan Dynasty and the fall of the Song Dynasty, the southern areas of China remained loyal to the Song Dynasty (some historians refer to this as the Southern Song Dynasty).It would not be until March 19, 1279, at the Battle of Yamen that the outnumbered Yuan navy (they were allegedly outnumbered by ten to one) soundly defeated the last stand of the Song Dynasty, finally proclaiming official rule over all of Chinahence why 1279 is also given as an official start date for the Yuan Dynasty.Either way, by the turn of 1280, the Yuan Dynasty was well and truly in charge of China.Kublai Khan: The Yuan Dynastys Greatest Ruler?Map of the Empire of the Great Khan, from the Catalan Atlas, 1375. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhat is interesting to note about Kublai Khans rule is that his style of rule was an amalgamation of traditional Chinese rule, and Mongol ruling practiceshe essentially had the best of both worlds.In 1271, he formally proclaimed the Mandate of Heaven, which was a traditional way for ancient and imperial Chinese rulers to legitimize their rule: Kublai proclaimed himself the Son of Heaven, and thus ushered in a new era of Chinese history, promising it to be an age of peace and prosperitymuch like the rulers of the Song, Tang, Han, and other earlier dynasties had done before him.He used another Chinese method to establish his rule when he declared that 1272 was to be the first year of the Great Yuan, and made Khanbaliq the new capital (Khanbaliq is located where modern-day Beijing is).This was another example of Khan using both Mongol and Chinese methods together to legitimize his rule for both Mongols and Chinese. He even evoked an image of a sage emperor by following the rules laid out by Confucius in ancient China, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a Mongol leader as a direct descendant of Genghis Khan.One of Khans most important diplomatic moves was his open support for trade through the Silk Roadsthis helped the early Yuan economy to boom, and it was also aided by Kublai Khans continued use of the Mongol postal system, which he successfully integrated into Yuan Dynasty China. This was created through the use of skilled horse riders and postal stations, who could deliver messages at a speed unprecedented before, which aided with trade and communications across the vast empire.Portrait of Marco Polo, by Giovanni Grevembroch, c. 1750. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt is the reign of Kublai Khan to which the term Pax Mongolica (Mongol peace) refersa clear reference to the Pax Romana (Roman peace). It was during the rule of Kublai Khan and the early years of the Yuan Dynasty that peace and prosperity came to China in the Middle Ages.Technological developments also took place during Kublai Khans reign, most notably the expansion of the Grand Canal, further connecting north and south China, and his encouragement of the use of jiaochao (paper bank notes).However, perhaps the most notable aspect of Kublai Khans court and early Yuan rule was that he openly welcomed foreign visitors to Chinamost famously of all, the world-famous Venetian merchant Marco Polo. It is Marco Polos account of his stay in Kublai Khans court that created the best Western interpretation of contemporary Yuan China.Yuan Society and ReligionKublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Liu Guandao, c. 1380. Source: National Palace, TaipeiWhile we could cover almost a full century of Mongol rule in China, the next section of this article will discuss Yuan society, and how it was structured.Firstly, a new language was needed so that both Mongol and Chinese citizens could communicate with one another: this was essentially a mash-up of both languages and became known as the Phagspha script. While the majority of the Mongol emperors in the Yuan Dynasty could not master written Chinese, most of them took to Phagspha very well.While most of the emperors had huge palaces commissioned, many of the Mongol rulers still stuck to what they knew best, and lived semi-nomadic lifestyles, frequently traveling around the realm.The religion of the empire was another interesting factor in the running of the Yuan Dynasty. The establishment of the Yuan Dynasty saw a huge increase in the number of Muslims in China. However, Kublai Khan favored Tibetan Buddhism as a religion, and as a result, the official state religion of the Yuan Dynasty became Buddhism, and many Buddhist statues and sculptures in China date from the Yuan Period.Social Class Structure in the Yuan DynastyJinan Great Southern Mosque, built during the Yuan Dynasty. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs mentioned earlier, there was a distinct class structure under the Yuan Dynastyand while it was generally deemed a period of peace and prosperity, a foreign nation invading and taking over a centuries-old dynasty meant that there was an element of racial structure to the class system in Yuan Dynasty China.At the top of the chain were, of course, the Mongols. This comes as no surprise based on the fact that the class system was structured based on who the Mongols felt they could trust the most.The group deemed as second-class citizens was named the Semu. This group was made up of non-Mongol Westerners, and those from Central Asia. This group included Muslims, Jews, Tibetans, and Christians.The third group was simply called the Han. The term also encompassed Koreans and other ethnic groups who lived north of the Huaihe River, as well as the native north Chinese Han people.The group that the Mongols deemed as the lowest under the Yuan Dynasty were the Nan, which meant Southerners. These were all the subjects of the short-lived Southern Song Dynasty, which the Yuan had overthrown in 1279 to formally establish the Yuan Dynasty.Developments in Science and Technology in Yuan Dynasty ChinaHorse and Groom, handscroll by Zhao Yong, 1347. Source: National Museum of Asian Art, SmithsonianOne of the most unfair, yet commonly accepted, associations with Yuan Dynasty China is that there was a lull in scientific and technological advancements following the death of Kublai Khan in 1294.This was not the case at all, and the perception of the Mongols as savages is simply outdated and xenophobic. It was during the Yuan Dynasty that the mathematician Zhu Shijie solved simultaneous equations with up to four coefficients, something that is equivalent to matrices today.In fact, mathematical knowledge was actually brought to China by the Mongols, and, combined with Arab calendars, contributed to incredible mathematical developments in the years of the Yuan Dynasty.Moreover, because of the melting pot of diverse cultures that was Yuan China, medicine evolved rapidly, tooKublai Khan even created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to support the education of new physicians. Some of medieval Chinas finest physicians lived during the Yuan Dynasty: the Mongol-born physician Hu Sihui mentioned the importance of a healthy diet in a medical treatise dated to 1330, while another physician, Wei Yilin, invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, and he performed this with the use of anesthetics.Paper money, as mentioned earlier, could not be produced without a printerand the Mongols held a monopoly on printing in Yuan China, and are often credited with bringing printing into the mainstream in China. For example, in 1273 the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, which was a government-sponsored printing office. By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars had reached over three million in the Yuan Dynasty alone, which goes to show the sheer volume of printing that was happening during this period.The Decline of the Yuan DynastyThe Hongwu Emperor, c. 1377. Source: National Palace, TaipeiWhile the early years of the Yuan Dynasty under the rule of Kublai Khan had seen great peace and prosperity come to medieval China, the later years would take a different tack.The 1320s saw corrupt emperors and regicide, and popular rebellionswhich had been rare during the early years of the Yuan Dynastycropped up more often. Pretenders to the Imperial Throne and relatives of descendants of Genghis Khan battled it out, often at the expense of peasants who suffered at their hands, either in their armies or their crop yield.The 1340s saw a range of natural disasters including floods, drought, and resulting famines, which finally culminated in a series of rebellions against the Yuan government known as the Red Turban Rebellion.The Red Turban Rebellion had started in 1351, and by 1354 had gained so much popular support that the emperor ordered it to be put down, but failed.It was thanks to the leadership of the Red Turban Rebellion, under Zhu Yuanzhang, that the emperor was forced to flee north to Shangdu from his base in Khanbaliq in 1368, at the arrival of the Ming Dynasty. It was Zhu Yuanzhang who would go on to be crowned as the Hongwu Emperor, the first Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, who would rule China from 1368 until 1644.The Yuan Dynasty: In ConclusionMilitary costume from the Yuan Dynasty. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhile the Yuan Dynasty came to an abrupt end in 1368 after less than a century of rule, at the hands of the mighty Ming Dynasty (which in turn would go on to rule for almost 300 years) its achievements cannot be overlooked.The perception of the Yuan Dynasty as a mixed amalgamation of tribes and savages is simply wrongsome of medieval Chinas greatest minds were born during the Yuan Dynasty and helped shape it through their knowledge and expertise in a range of fields such as engineering, mathematics, and science.While Kublai Khans leadership saw an age of peace and prosperity brought to China, it was not the royalty who suffered but the conquered classeswith the Mongols favoring their own over the Han Chinese.Finally, the Yuan Dynasty should not be remembered as the Mongols simply occupying Chinathe Mongols made an effort to assimilate into Chinese culture, which is why Yuan Dynasty China is one of the most important eras of Chinese history, with its effect still being felt today.

Both La Chanson de Roland and Beowulf are national epic poems whose heroes die in dramatic and memorable ways. Both are distinctly products of their religious setting, though those settings are different for each poem. Wyrd, an Anglo-Saxon word that gives us the Modern English word Weird, shows up several times in Beowulf. Metaphysical but not codified, wyrd as a world-view and philosophy affects how characters in Beowulf die. This is especially true compared to another national epic, The Song of Roland, which has a Christian philosophy.What is The Song of Roland?Eight stages of The Song of Roland in one picture, from Grandes Chroniques de France, 15th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Song of Roland is an epic French poem whose beauty and complexity rival that of a medieval tapestry. It sings of the story of the Battle of Roncevaux, an Islamic attack on King Charlemagnes men and their subsequent heroic deeds. One of the oldest chansons de geste, a genre of medieval narrative poetry, the story of The Song of Roland is as magnificent a literary art form as any majestic tapestry.Though it is a poetic legend, it originated in historical fact. The history of the event is clear: there was a battle between Charlemagnes men and the Basque at a place near the Roncevaux pass bordering Spain and France. It is also widely accepted that one of Charlemagnes knights, Roland, died while fighting. The characters and narrator also champion crusader Christianity, which values king, country, service to God, and martyrdom.What is Beowulf?The first folio of the heroic epic poem Beowulf, 975-1025. Source: The British LibraryBeowulf is Great Britains closest work of literature to a national epic poem. The plot centers around three monsters: Grendel, Grendels mother, and a dragon. The hero of the story, Beowulf, battles each monster. Grendel first attacks King Hrothgars hall, prompting him to call for aid. Thain Beowulf comes. He successfully kills Grendel, but then Grendels mother (who never gets another name) seeks vengeance. Beowulf then must fight her in her own fen underwater. Time passes. Beowulf becomes king of his own people. But they need him once more as a dragon awakens and starts ravaging the countryside. A yet hale old man, the dragon defeats him.Religious Backgrounds: Wyrd and Medieval ChristianityWhat is Wyrd?Wyrding Women, Straygator69, 2024. Source: DeviantArtMost simply, wyrd means fate or a power beyond and over that of humankinds normal agency. In Beowulf, the spiritual or supernatural concept of wyrd plays a significant role within the plot and characters minds. The first two instances of wyrd occur relatively early in the story: during Beowulfs greeting to Hrothgar, he states that G a wyrd swa hio scel Fate goes ever on as fate must (455). In the same conversation, Hrothgar recounts how hie wyrd forsweop / on Grendles gryre. God eae mg / one dolsaan dda getwfan! Fate drove us into Grendels violence. God may yet stop the evil-enemys deeds! (477-479).Hrothgar blames wyrd for the terrors Grendel has wreaked on his people. One scholar describes wyrd as a blind and whimsical force whose dealings with men are unrelated to their merit (Tietjen, 1975). Another scholar writes that In the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon mythology, the term denoted a force in the universe which controlled the destinies of all things[.] It compels even the gods to act in accord with its dictates (Kasik, 1979).Connected to Celtic paganism, wyrd is a supernatural concept in opposition to that of strictly orthodox Christianity. While Beowulf also contains many references to the Lord God, this article focuses on the undercurrent of wyrd in the story and how it affects characters.Elements of Medieval ChristianityThe Martyrdom of St. Paul, by Tintoretto, circa 1556 CE. Source: WikiArtIn order to understand how philosophical and religious differences affect these texts, it is first important to understand the differences in the two texts settings and their relationship to religion. In the introduction to her translation of Roland, Dorothy Sayers argues that [Roland] is not merely Christian in subject; it is Christian to its very bones. Nowhere does the substratum of an older faith break through the Christian surface.It is of course also important to take into account the fact that Roland irrefutably depicts the struggles of a holy war. Even in the midst of carnage and grief, the text reminds the characters (and by extension, the readers) what they are fighting for. Roland scholar, Gerard Brault, explains that: [w]hen Roland says the French must be prepared to suffer everything in the Kings name, he means literally that the Christians must be willing to face death in Gods name. Charless cause is Gods cause and the Spanish campaign is a holy war.Most of the evidence points to the La Chanson manuscript being copied as early as 1066 (Russell 1952), which is significant historically because that was not long before the First Crusade. Internally and externally, the setting for Roland is that of a righteous war enacted in Gods name against infidels. Furthermore, martyrdom is a distinct theme of Roland. When Archbishop Turpin exhorts his men to combat, he declares, If you should die, you will become holy martyrs.When Heroes DieRolands DeathThe death of Roland, from the Grandes Chroniques de France, illuminated by Jean Fouquet, 1455-60. Source: BnFUnlike some heroes who are always untouchable, or like Beowulf who lives into old age, Roland dies in a terrible and memorable way. Stretched out over multiple stanzas, Rolands death scene slows the narrative to a respectful, almost contemplative pace. Far after the point, it would be useful, he finally sounds the call for help with great pain and grief (134), while Brilliant blood shoots from his mouth, / His brain has burst out from his forehead (134). His brain gushes from his head, and still, he continues to fight (156).At last, he dies gently, Clasping his hands together at the very end (176), in an image akin to that of prayer. Roland is able to ask forgiveness for his sins once more before dying, confessing: God, forgive me for all I have committed against you (175). After Roland prays and offers his gauntlet to God (174), Heavenly angels descend to / retrieve his soul and carry it to Paradise (174, 176). After all that Roland has suffered, the text makes it clear that God holds his soul in heaven (177), providing a reassuring conclusion to his pain.Paysage avec la mort de Roland (Landscape with the Death of Roland), by A.E. Michallon, circa 1822. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRoland scholar Marianne Ailes comments that: This is, in medieval terms, an ideal death. Roland dies as a martyr, obeying God and serving his lord. Dying from the bursting of his temples in blowing the horn, he alone [of the Frankish knights] does not die at the hands of the Saracens, but rather in sublime self-sacrifice.Rolands physical torture is not in vain, since he sacrifices himself for Charlemagne and for God. He has a heros end, with a superhuman continuation of battle even after his grievous wounds. His death becomes almost triumphant as angels usher his soul off the battlefield and directly into Heaven, becoming a proper martyr. There is no doubt as to where Rolands soul goes after he dies, and even though the French have mourned his earthly death, they also trust that he is in Heaven.Beowulfs DeathWiglaf and Beowulf, from Stories of Beowulf, 1908. Source: PicrylNeither a martyr nor acting in the full religious security of God, Beowulf dies differently. After ruling his people successfully (as far as we know, since there is a lacuna in the account of his kingdom), Beowulf must face his bane in the form of an eordraca [earth dragon]. Though he makes a brave stand, the dragon grievously wounds him and the narrator records that him wyrd ne gescraf / hre t hilde fate did not grant him victory (2574-2575) against the dragon.In a touching scene, he bids farewell to faithful companion, Wiglaf, saying: ealle wyrd forsweop / mine magas to metodsceafte / eorlas on elne; ic him fter sceal Fate drove all my people, bright noble lords, to their doom; now I shall follow (2814-2816). He blames wyrd for destroying his people (2814) and the narrator makes it clear also that wyrd did not grant him victory (2575) during his last battle. Tietjen comments that wyrd is almost always connected with death (162), and Beowulfs passing into the halls of his forebears shows this clearly. The incorporation of the unknowability of wyrd contributes to Beowulf dying ultimately in uncertainty, and so the Geats have good cause to elegize him.On the other hand, even though the French army had a lot to mourn, it was God Himself who commanded Charlemagne. And as the Holy Roman Emperor, he holds certain jurisdictions. For instance, after he returns to help Roland (though too late), The emperor carried out his justice (291), which implies that part of the purpose of Charlemagnes battles was to mete (Godly) justice, but also that it has been accomplished. This authority ultimately comforts the French with the surety of Gods grace and final justice, even though their hero is dead.Beowulf fighting the Dragon, from Stories of Beowulf, 1908. Source: PicrylIt is exactly this surety that both Beowulfs people and Beowulf himself lack. Just as Rolands exploits leave France more exposed, as Beowulf, the leader of his people dies, he leaves his people bereft of protection. Coming out of the dragons den, even as he laments Beowulf, Wiglaf scolds the warriors who abandoned Beowulf, saying that:Now shall the treasure-giving and sword-gifting, and all the homeland joy of your families, cease; each of you land-holding men will become desolate, since foreign lords will learn of how you fled, acting without honor. (2884-2890)He brutally reminds the deserters of the position Beowulfs death leaves them in a laughing stock among the nations and open for attacks by a circumspect prince abroad.Similarly, in a gritty scene of mourning at Beowulfs funeral:Thus was the lament of a Geatish maiden, hair bound back, singing sorrowfully, wailing her terror for the dread in days to come, for so many slaughtered, the horror of host-troops, shame and slavery. (3150-3155)Their king has died with no heir. They fear future invasions. The people lament their kings death not only out of their own grief but also for the unknown tragedies that may ensue.Beowulf face to face with the fire-breathing dragon, from Myths and Legends of all Nations, by Marshall Logan, 1914. Source: PicrylExactly unlike how Heaven opens up to receive Roland, after the Geat womans keening, the text just says that Heofon rece swealg heaven swallow[s] the smoke (3155) of Beowulfs funeral pyre. Now during their dire need, all that is said is that Heaven dispassionately observes the suffering of mankind, creating ambiguity about Beowulfs souls fate.By the end of the story, Beowulfs audience is left unsure about cosmic or divine security. Furthermore, wyrd is still present within the text and the imagination of at least the characters if not specifically the audience. Foreshadowing Grendels mothers attack on Heorot, the narrator comments that the sleeping thanes Wyrd ne cuon knew not their fate (1233), but ultimately, none of the characters do and nor do the Beowulf-poets audience.Their heroes die, and only Rolands people can be sure that he has gone to heaven. Beowulfs Geats have no hope for either his soul or themselves. The Christian elements of Roland bring its own kind of comfort during the death of its main hero. Whereas in Beowulf, due to the overshadowing and sometimes cruel power of wyrd, neither the character nor his people have comfort at the end. At the mercy of wyrd, the Beowulf poet lets the listeners learn that indeed, G a wyrd swa hio scel Fate goes ever on as fate must (455) just as Beowulf himself had declared.BibliographyAiles, Marianne J. The Song of Roland: On Absolutes and Relative Values, The Edwin MellenPress, 2002.Brault, Gerard J. The Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition, Penn State University Press,University Park and London, 1978.Kasik, Jon. The Use of the Term Wyrd in Beowulf and the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons.Neophilologus. vol. 63. 1979. pp. 128-13Klaebers Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, edited by R.D. Fulk, Robert E. Bjork, and JohnD. Niles, Fourth ed., University of Toronto Press, 2008.Morris, David B, About Suffering: Voice, Genre, and Moral Community, Daedalus, vol. 125,no. 1, 1996, pp. 2545. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20027352.Russell, J. C. The Chanson De Roland: Written in Spain in 1093? Studies in Philology, vol.49, no. 1, 1952, pp. 1724. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4173001.Tietjen, Mary C. Wilson. God, Fate, and the Hero of Beowulf. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol. 74, no. 2, University of Illinois Press, 1975, pp. 15971, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27707876.The Song of Roland. Translated by Dorothy Sayers, Penguin Classics, 1982.Williams, Rowan, The Tragic Imagination: The Literary Agenda, Oxford University Press. NewYork. 2016.

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