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The Prohibition period lasted from January 1920 to December 1933. Its supporters wanted to end the consumption of alcohol, which brought suffering to many families. However, Prohibition was ultimately unsuccessful, and instead, allowed government corruption, widespread criminal activities, and the birth of a unique era in US history. While Prohibition is often linked to clubs, jazz, and romance, it was not all like that. This article will explore the historical background of Prohibition, the criminal activities of this era, and what brought it to an end.The Political and Historical BackgroundA political cartoon making fun of the Anti-Saloon League and the Womens Christian Temperance Unions campaign against the producers and sellers of beers in Hawaii, by Rea Irvin, The Hawaiian Gazette, May 23, 1902. Source: Wikimedia Commons / University of Hawaii at Manoa Library / Chronicling AmericaThe idea of banning alcohol consumption in the United States originated before the Prohibition Era and began to spread among various religious and social movements. In particular, the Temperance Movement, advocating for sizable social reforms in the United States, gained a lot of support in the 1830s. Alcohol was often linked to crime, abuse, bad behavior, violence, and poverty. Some organizations, such as the American Temperance Society and Womens Christian Temperance Union, called for banning liquor consumption because its members believed it represented the moral deterioration of society and humanity. These organizations started propagating alcohol prohibition in the first part of the 19th century, and the idea started getting more support over time.Political cartoon against alcohol consumption, by Frank Beard, originally published in The Rams Horn, 1890. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Rams Horn Press, ChicagoEven before the official ban and the Prohibition era, there were some attempts to ban or limit alcohol consumption on a state level. In 1838, Massachusetts passed a law to ban the sale of spirits in quantities smaller than 15 gallons, wanting to make it more difficult for people to purchase alcohol. However, the unpopular law was repealed two years later. Similarly, in 1846, Maine introduced a temperance and prohibition law which highly restricted the sale of alcohol. In 1851, Maine became the first state that passed a statewide prohibition law, outlawing the production and sale of alcohol altogether. This law was one of the first precedents for the upcoming nationwide prohibition laws, since some other states, like Rhode Island and Kansas, soon followed its example.At the beginning of the 20th century, the Prohibition movement and its ideas gained more supporters and political backing. One of the most influential backers of the movement was businessman Henry Ford, who believed that alcohol negatively affected the productivity of his workers. The support of wealthy industrialists, who poured money and finances into the movement, made it possible to develop a strong and effective propaganda campaign. Thus, the ideas behind Prohibition began to reach and spread among its target audience.Womans Holy War. Grand Charge on the Enemys Works, by Currier and Ives, 1874. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DCAnother essential factor influencing the Prohibition movement was the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918). The American public started developing an anti-German stance, which included boycotting German-owned bars and breweries. Additionally, the ingredients used to make alcohol were much needed to produce food and other necessary goods during the conflict. As a result, in the mid-1910s, Prohibition gained significant momentum, and the number of supporters from different parts of society increased. The movement also gained a national dimension, which greatly helped its advocates.The 18th Amendment and the Volstead ActThe Drunkards Progress: From the First Glass to the Grave, by Nathaniel Currier, c. 1846. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DCAs political support for Prohibition grew, so did the calling for the official law and the amendment that would legalize it. On January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was finally ratified, marking one of the most famous chapters in US history. The amendment prohibited the selling and consumption of alcohol nationwide and officially made producing, transferring, and trading alcohol illegal.While the 18th Amendment targeted intoxicating liquors, it did not specify what kind of liquors would be banned, nor did it explain how the law and prohibition would be imposed. The lack of specificity was resolved by Congress, which passed the National Prohibition Act, commonly known as Volstead Act (after Minnesota representative Andrew Volstead), the same year. Even though President Woodrow Wilson was against Prohibition, famously trying to veto the Volstead Act, Congress passed the measure on October 28, 1919. The Volstead Act marked a watershed moment in American history, enforcing the 18th Amendment. The act also defined the intoxicating liquors mentioned in the amendment as any beverage with more than 0.5% alcohol by volume.The Volstead Act gave the federal government a plan and way to enforce the new law and prosecute people who would violate it. However, the National Prohibition Act and the laws against alcohol consumption were not as successful as its supporters hoped. People still enjoyed drinking, and alcohol consumption and trade simply went underground, giving more power to criminals and helping the rise of bootlegging and other criminal enterprises. Criminals, such as the notorious Al Capone, made a lot of money illegally due to the widespread corruption of the Prohibition Era.Bootlegging and Organized CrimeAmericans in Paris celebrated the end of Prohibition, unknown author, 1933. Source: Wikimedia Commons / The New York TimesOne of the phrases often connected to Prohibition was bootlegging. What did it actually mean? Bootlegging was a term used to describe criminal activity regarding the manufacturing, transporting, and trading of alcohol during the Prohibition Era. The origin of the name goes back to the 19th century and it is connected to people hiding alcohol in their boots. During Prohibition, Bootlegging started immediately upon the ratification of the Volstead Act and manifested itself in different ways, including moonshining, smuggling, and speakeasies.Moonshining refers to the practice of making alcoholic beverages at home. It was extremely popular during Prohibition, especially in some provincial and rural territories. Smuggling was another common practice at the time. Alcoholic drinks were usually smuggled to the US from Canada and the Caribbean, since they were the closest to the US borders. Despite alcohol being illegal in North America, the bordering countries did not intend to abandon the use of the infamous beverage. Maritime smugglers, commonly known as rum-runners, famously carried illegal drinks from the Caribbean islands.Bootleggers then hid their supplies in speakeasies, notorious underground bars and clubs that served the banned liquor. Over time, these establishments became one of the most famous symbols of Prohibition. These clubs were often run by criminals and criminal organizations that had protection from corrupt government employees.The Prohibition Era was a unique period in US history, bringing up issues such as corruption and organized crime. Alcohol became one of the main illegal trades, making some people a lot of money and giving them a lot of power. Organized crime involved many people, such as policemen and politicians. Some of the most famous criminals of this era were Al Capone, Meyer Lensky, Charles Lucky Luciano, and George Machine Gun Kelly.Corruption and Open Law ViolationA police raid at Elk Lake, Canada, 1925. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Archives of OntarioIf something was quite present during the Prohibition era, it was the widespread corruption, involving almost all levels of government, including local, state, and federal. The most common kinds of corruption were bribes, racketeering, and owning criminal enterprises. Criminal activities thrived and dealt with alcohol distribution while it was banned. One of the reasons why criminals became so successful during Prohibition was that government officials looked the other way and allowed criminal activities in exchange for a bribe or a cut of the profits. Chicago, New York, and Kansas City were the most (in)famous cities in terms of crime rate.During Prohibition, certain cities had notoriously corrupted officials that made a lot of money through bootlegging and bribery. One of them was Chicago Mayor William Big Bill Thompson whose cabinet was involved with Al Capone. Capone had in his pocket not only the mayor, but also several judges, officers, and politicians, making sure that his criminal activities stayed protected. Another famous corrupted politician was the mayor of New York City, James J. Walker, also known as Beau James. Walker and many of his colleagues tolerated bootlegging because they profited from the illegal trade of alcohol. In Kansas City, the corrupted politician was Tom Pendergast, who allowed crime to thrive. Due to the widespread corruption in the city, criminal businesses were deliberately not attacked or investigated.New York City Deputy Police Commissioner John A. Leach (right) watches as agents pour liquor into sewer following a raid during the Prohibition Era, unknown author. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DCDespite the efforts of law enforcement officials, American society openly defied the Prohibition laws and continued to consume alcohol. The infamous hidden bars were serving and seeking alcoholic drinks, no matter the law, knowing that the politicians were often working with criminals and gangsters. The places selling liquors that represented everything the Prohibition opposed were thriving in many cities. The fact that they often operated in the open proves how much they were in bed with the political establishment.The 21st Amendment and RepealDetroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine underground brewery during the prohibition era, unknown author, c. 1920-1933. Source: Wikimedia Commons / National ArchivesIt soon became obvious that Prohibition and its laws were not achieving their goals. The final nail in the coffin was the Great Depression (1929-1939) and all its struggles. Due to widespread corruption and criminal activities, it was clear that Prohibition was not a successful endeavor. All these factors combined led to the extreme dissatisfaction of the American public, who started calling for the end of Prohibition, arguing that it only made their lives worse and criminals richer.Original color transparency of FDR taken at the Official Campaign Portrait session, by Leon Perskie, August 22, 1944. Source: Wikimedia Commons / FDR Presidential Library & MuseumPeople calling for the end of Prohibition also received political support from the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment and the Womens Organization for National Reform. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt gained many voters sympathies based on his determination to end Prohibition. In March 1933, Roosevelt issued the Cullen-Harrison Act, allowing the production and sale of drinks with up to 3.2 percent alcohol by volume. Another step in dismantling Prohibition laws occurred on February 21, 1933, when Congress proposed the 21st Amendment. Ratified later that year in December, it directly repealed the previous 18th Amendment, officially putting an end to Prohibition.A group of women drinking beer at the bar in Raceland, Louisiana, by Russell Lee, September 1938. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe consequences of the 21st Amendment were many and widespread. Breweries and alcohol distillers resumed their work legally, making it taxable and beneficial for the government. At the same time, criminal activities and enterprises connected to bootlegging and alcohol smuggling lost their sources of income since people were now allowed to consume alcohol legally. The 21st Amendment ended one of the most intriguing parts of US history, allowing the people of the United States of America to choose whether they would like to drink, or not, legally.The Prohibition Era also had a major cultural impact on American society and influenced many musicians, writers, and the cinema world. Jazz music thrived during Prohibition, giving us some of the most talented musicians like Duke Ellington and Cole Porter. Some of the most famous literary works were inspired by the speakeasy culture, such as The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Manhattan Transfer by John Dos Passos. Probably the most famous cultural impact of the Prohibition Era was the so-called gangster film genre. Cinematographers were greatly inspired by this period of US history, and made some of the most known and cult classic films like Little Caesar (1931), The Public Enemy (1931), and Scarface (1932).

The late 18th century in France was a tumultuous time, marked by the rise of revolutionary ideologies. To end the grip of the absolute monarchy, people had to take the matter into their own hands. The result was the French Revolution. One of the most influential groups of the revolution was the Jacobin Club, whose members called for a more equal society. However, the Jacobins became increasingly radical, prosecuting their opponents and introducing the infamous Reign of Terror. This article will explain the rise, fall, and ideology of the Jacobins.Political Atmosphere in France Before the Rise of the Jacobin MovementLouis XVI, King of France and Navarre, wearing his grand royal costume, by Antoine-Franois Callet, c. 1778-1779. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Museum of the History of France, VersaillesBefore the start of the French Revolution in 1789, France was an absolute monarchy. King Louis XVI ruled with unchecked power and divine right from Versailles. The government was centralized. During the early modern period in Europe, many monarchs claimed they had a so-called divine right to rule. Believing God had appointed them, only he could judge them; thus, they were above the earthly laws.During the second half of the 18th century, dissatisfaction grew rapidly and spread throughout the country. Indeed, Frances political, social, and economic system faced several challenges, and the revolutionary atmosphere could be felt way before 1789.On top of the unbalanced and unchecked concentration of power, France had a substantial national debt due to wars and taking part in the American Revolution (1775-1783). The taxation system was extremely unequal because the aristocracy and clergy were mostly exempt from paying taxes, while the lower classes were heavily taxed. Besides the problems caused by poor government, bad infrastructure, and wars, food shortages increased the peoples extreme dissatisfaction.Prise de la Bastille, by Jean-Pierre Houl, 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisIn 18th-century France, the Enlightenment was one of the most significant forces that led to the spread of revolutionary ideas and the rise of movements such as the Jacobins.During the Enlightenment, scholars and philosophers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire challenged absolutism, calling for the separation of powers and sketching a political and social system based on natural rights.After the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the abolition of feudalism, and the Declaration of the Rights of Men and the Citizen in August of the same year, the political situation and landscape changed drastically. Initially, the main revolutionary forces were less radical than the Jacobin movement. However, in the following years, the Jacobins rose to power due to the harsh economic situation and extreme dissatisfaction and became one of the most dominant political forces of the French Revolution.Origins of the Jacobin MovementSeal affixed by the Jacobins of Paris on their manuscripts and publications, c. 1792. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Jacobins were initially known as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, as they opposed absolute monarchy and advocated for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.In the beginning, the movements supporters were moderate. The Jacobins then became progressively more radical with the relocation to Paris and peoples dissatisfaction with the revolutions leadership and progress.In Paris, the members and supporters of the Jacobin group started meeting in a former convent of the Dominicans, known in the city as Jacobins. Thus, they earned the nickname Jacobins. As the revolution progressed and their program spread, the Jacobin movement grew, gaining members from different parts of life and social classes.With the ongoing revolution, the Jacobin movement started to fraction and develop different ideas and political goals. In particular, the division was between a more moderate part, led by Antoine Barnave, and a more radical part, led by the famous Maximilien Robespierre. The moderates supported the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. On the other hand, the radicals called for a republic, ultimately leading to the complete separation of two fractions in 1792. From this moment, the Jacobin movement would be led by Robespierre and the radical republicans.Meanwhile, the Jacobins ideas spread throughout France, which resulted in the formation of local Jacobin Clubs in several provinces. The clubs functioned as strongholds of republicanism, distributing newsletters and pamphlets listing the benefits of the republican system and the disadvantages of absolutism while denouncing the abuse of power by the aristocrats, clergy, and the king.Through their work, the Jacobin clubs aimed to remind people they had the power to overthrow the tyrannical government and had the right to participate in the political processes by voting and electing their representatives.Ideology and Goals of the Jacobin MovementPortrait of Maximilien Robespierre, unknown author, c. 1790. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Carnavalet, ParisAfter parting ways with the more moderate faction of the movement in 1792, the Jacobins firmly advocated abolishing the monarchy and establishing a republic with a government of representatives elected democratically. The Jacobins were influenced by the democratic and republican ideas from the Enlightenment. Indeed, it is generally believed one of the Jacobins ideological forefathers was Jean-Jacque Rousseau with his concept of the general will.In January 1793, the Jacobins and their leader, Robespierre, supported the execution of King Louis XVI, believing that the monarchy was in direct opposition to the revolutionary ideas. In June 1791, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette had tried to escape. However, they were arrested at Varennes. In August 1792, the sans-culottes, with the support of the Jacobins, stormed the Tuileries Palace and arrested the royals. In September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, and France became a republic.The Jacbonis also wanted to abolish the feudal system and fight economic inequality, calling for the introduction of economic policies that would benefit all, especially the lower classes that struggled due to food shortages.They ultimately sought to enlarge their support among the wage earners and peasants, aiming to include them in political life and encourage them to elect governmental representatives. The Jacobins came to power through different political plays and, especially, through the radicalization of the masses.Une excution capitale (An Execution), by Pierre-Antoine Demachy, c. 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Carnavalet, ParisIn the 1790s, they formed a front with the sans-culottes, the radical urban crowds of the revolution. This alliance was crucial to their political success. In August 1790, the sans-culottes and the Jacobins organized the storming of the Tuileries palace, where the royal family was held, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy.After this event, the monarchy was abolished, and the First French Republic was formed. Radical revolutionaries were looking for blood and revenge. In September of the same year, thousands of royalists, or even suspected royalists, were executed. In January 1793, even the king was guillotined.With ample support and big expectations, the Jacobins came to power. However, their political rule would be remembered as the Reign of Terror. The Jacobins came to power with the aim of building a state based on republicanism, democracy, and radical virtue. However, their use of terror and authoritarian tactics led to their downfall.The Reign of TerrorDeath sentence of the Sisters of Charity of Arras in 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Church of Saint-Pierre de Miniac-Morvan, ParisThe Reign of Terror (1793-1794) marked the period when the Jacobins were the most influential political force in Frances First Republic. The name comes from the harsh measures taken to deal with political opponents and cement the new political system.The Jacobins, by then well into their radicalism, took over the government in 1793. At that moment, France was in a tough position in terms of both international and national politics. On the one hand, the country had been engaged in a war against a coalition between Austria, Prussia, and Britain since 1792. Within its borders, the situation was also challenging, with uprisings of royalists and federalists, especially in the Vende region, that turned into a civil war.Brissot and 20 of his accomplices at the guillotine, unknown author, October 31, 1793. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisIn June 1793, a popular uprising led to the overthrow of the Girodins, the moderate front of the revolutionary forces, from the National Convention, the assembly that governed France until 1795. From this moment, the Convention was controlled by the Montagnards, a more radical faction whose members were closely associated with the Jacobin Club.In the following months, the Montagnards, assisted by the Jacobins and sans-culottes, started to target their political opponents and all those who were even slightly rumored to support royalists. The symbol of this period in French history is the infamous guillotine. In October 1973, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. In the same month, Georges Dantone and Camille Desmoulins, former friends and comrades of Robespierre, were also guillotined.Portrait of Marie Antoinette, unknown author, after Jean-Baptiste Andr Gautier-Dagoty, after 1775. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse Antoine-Lcuyer, Saint-Quentin, FranceMaximilien Robespierre famously said: Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice; it is therefore an emanation of virtue. The Montagnards and Jacobins formed the Committee of Public Safety, a political body tasked with defending France (and the Revolution) from external and internal enemies. During the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety, the de facto ruling body of the country, persecuted and executed thousands of people accused of being counterrevolutionaries.The radical ideology of the Jacobins was based on the idea that the revolution, and with it, the republic, could not survive with opposition and enemies. Albert Soboul, who analyzed the French Revolution within a Marxist framework, argued that the Terror resulted from the class antagonism between the aristocracy and bourgeoisie and the lower classes asking for basic human rights.The End and Legacy of the Jacobin MovementThe Roll Call of the Last Victims of the Terror, by Charles Louis Mller, 1850. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse des Beaux-Arts de CarcassonneThe Reign of Terror brought a lot of dissatisfaction with and fear of Maximilien Robespierres leadership among the French population. No one felt safe during the de facto dictatorship of the Committee of Public Safety. It became clear that Robespierre and his allies went too far. In 1794, they started to lose support even among revolutionaries. At the same time, Maximilien Robespierre also cut ties with the sans-culottes, alarmed by their increasingly radical demands.The internal divisions within the revolutionary forces came to a head in the summer of 1794. Robespierre and his close supporters were arrested on July 27, 1794, and a day later, they were executed.The overthrow of Robespierre is commonly remembered as the Thermidoran Reaction, and it marked the end of the Reign of Terror and the Jacobins rule and influence. Thermidor was the term for the eleventh month in the French Revolutionary calendar that was in use from 1793 to 1805. It lasted from late July to late August.The execution of Robespierre and his supporters on 28 July 1794, by an unknown author, July 28, 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisThe Jacobin club and its activities were forbidden by law in 1794, and sans-culottes lost the political upper hand in France. The Reign of Terror was followed by the White Terror, the prosecution of the Jacobins. The government and leadership of the First French Republic started to adopt a more moderate approach and policies.Closing of the Jacobin Club by Louis Legendre in the early morning of 28 July 1794, engraving by Claude-Nicolas Malapeau after Jean Duplessis-Bertaux, 1802. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Gallica, Bibliothque nationale de France, ParisWhile the Jacobins radicalism resulted in the execution of thousands of people, they also greatly influenced the French Revolution and the development of democratic ideals and revolutionary ideologies across the world. The Jacobins were often credited for impacting the fight for political and human rights.They played a crucial role in the establishment of the First French Republic and promoted a government and rule based on the will of the people. The Jacobins also supported the abolition of slavery in French colonies, the introduction of laws protecting human rights and making all citizens equal before the law, and economic policies to ensure that everyone had access to food and shelter.

In the early modern period, it was not rare for the ruler to claim the divine right to rule and to proclaim himself above the earthly laws. Absolute monarchy was one of the common political systems and had a lot of sympathizers not only among the rulers and kings but also among political scholars such as Thomas Hobbes. Eventually, people started to protest the abuse of power and demanded democratic reforms and institutions. This article will delve into what absolute monarchy represents and what is a political power without restraints.What Is Absolute Monarchy?Portrait of Peter I, attributed to Jean-Marc Nattier, 1717. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Hermitage Museum, St. PetersburgAbsolute monarchy is a form of political government in which the monarch has absolute authority and is not bound by the limitations of laws, a constitution, or any other political institution. This absolutist political system originated in early modern Europe, when the new nation-states replaced the old medieval order.Some of the main characteristics of absolute monarchy are complete authority and sovereignty. In this system, the monarch has absolute authority, and his government is centralized. Even though certain institutions can exist, they have no authority over the monarch, whose power is not checked or balanced by any other agency. Since absolute monarchs were ruling alone, they needed to establish a complex bureaucracy so they could control the whole state, even the territories far from their residence and the capital city.The frontispiece of the book Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, engraving by Abraham Bosse, 1651. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAbsolute monarchy had supporters in some of the most prolific political minds and philosophers of the early modern period, such as Jean Bodin (1530-1596) and Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Jean Bodin is considered one of the first political theorists to write about sovereignty as a concept. He wrote about the characteristics and importance of the absolute monarchy in his famous work Six Books of the Republic (1576). Bodin was a proponent of absolute monarchy and monarchs having absolute authority. He defended the idea that rulers must have supreme power over their subjects and the state. When challenged, some absolute monarchs referred to Bodins theories to defend their right to rule.Another famous political thinker who defended absolute monarchy was Thomas Hobbes. In his famous work Leviathan (1651), he argued the monarch had to have absolute power since it was the best way to prevent civil wars and keep civil society. According to Hobbes, the opposite state of civil society was the so-called State of Nature, where people lived in chaos and were constantly in danger.Political Institutions in the Absolute MonarchyThomas Hobbes, by John Michael Wright, c. 1669-1670. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, LondonThe monarch is the first and most important political institution in absolute monarchy. His powers extend to the legislative, judicial, and executive branchesan absolute monarch answers to no one. Unlike feudal monarchs, the absolute ruler did not share his authority and power with the nobles and aristocrats.The second important political institution in an absolute monarchy is bureaucracy and administration. They were tools for the absolute monarch to rule his territories. The monarch and his advisors would appoint governors and officials to assist him with various matters, including tax collection, law administration, and keeping order in the kingdom. As the Age of Exploration led to the first wave of colonialism, absolute monarchs began to appoint governors in the newly colonized lands. Absolute monarchs also created a sound legal system to ensure their will and laws were obeyed.Additionally, absolute rulers had to rely on strong military support. They often kept a professional army to help them keep their authority, peace, and control over their territories. To have such an army, the absolute monarch often introduced an extensive taxation system.Absolute monarchy also established a state-managed economic system. During the early modern period, an economic policy known as mercantilism promoted the establishment of trade barriers and colonial domination to achieve national power and glory. Mercantilism played a key role in sustaining absolutism in early modern Europe, allowing rulers to consolidate and finance their power.The Theological Aspect of the Divine Rights of KingsKing Charles I, by anonymous, late 17th/early 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Portrait Gallery, LondonAbsolute monarchs defended their right to unchecked power by claiming that it came directly from God. The concept of divine right was based on the idea that the ruler was the representative of God on earth to guide his subjects. According to divine right, defying the monarch was sinful and against the Christian faith. This kind of theological and political doctrine was extremely popular in the Middle Ages and lasted until the Enlightenment, when the idea of individual liberty was born.The Catholic Church initially supported the theory of the divine right of kings. However, the temporal rulers authority started clashing with the papacys power and interests over time. Popes also claimed to have a so-called papal supremacy over the Christian world. Thus, the idea of having supreme power based on divine right became a complicated issue, especially as monarchs started challenging papal power and establishing national churches. The most famous conflict between the pope and a temporal monarch occurred when King Henry VIII established the Anglican Church while keeping his divine right to rule over his subjects.Some of the most famous theologians, such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Jean Bodin, wrote about the divine right of kings. Their works would often be referenced whenever rulers had to defend their divine right to rule.The Decline of Absolute MonarchyStorming of the Bastille and arrest of Governor M. de Launay, by anonymous, July 14, 1789. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum of the History of France, Palace of VersaillesThe system of absolute monarchy started to decline with the rise and spread of Enlightenment ideas. Many factors contributed to this process, such as economic and social ones. People began developing ideas of democracy and individual rights. The birth of constitutionalism and the concept of limiting the monarchs powers were extremely influential, with many arguing that rulers should be held accountable and obey laws just like any other man. The concept of constitutional monarchy was explored and finally realized in England in 1689 with the Bill of Rights, which limited the kings unchecked power, making Parliament one of the key institutions in the kingdom.Another significant factor in the decline of absolute monarchy was the fact that some of the most influential political minds started challenging the absolute rights of monarchs. John Locke, for example, promoted the idea that the government was responsible for protecting its citizens, their liberty, and their rights to have property. Another famous Enlightenment philosopher who left a significant mark on the birth of democracy and modern philosophy was Montesquieu. He argued for the separation of powers and against any kind of abuse.Enlightenment ideas were extremely influential in the upcoming revolutions and the abolition of the absolute monarchy. Indeed, enlightenment thinkers and ideologies were prominent during the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the American Revolution (1775-1783). Both events permanently changed the political landscape and peoples view of absolute rulers.Who Were the Most Powerful Absolute Monarchs?Portrait of Louis XIV, by Hyacinthe Rigaud, c. 1700/1701. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Louvre Museum, ParisSome of Europes most influential absolute monarchs left an everlasting impact on world history. They are known not only for their absolute political power but also for building vast empires, military conquest, and strong leadership. Undoubtedly, some of the most powerful absolute monarchs were Philip II of Spain (1556-1598), Louis XIV of France (1643-1715), Peter the Great of Russia (1682-1725), and Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796).Portrait of Philip II of Spain, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museo del Prado, MadridPhilip II of Spain was known as the protector and defender of catholicism. He ruled the largest empire of the 16th century that spread across Spain, Portugal, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, the Duchy of Milan, Sardinia, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies in America. Philip II intensified colonial expansion and accumulated a lot of gold and silver from his American colonies. During the religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, Philip II positioned himself as the fearsome protector of the Roman Catholic Church and prosecuted Protestants. Philip II also strengthened the Spanish Inquisition, which became feared across Europe.King Louis XIV of France, also known as The Sun King, is often portrayed as the embodiment of absolutism. During his reign, he strengthened his authority by centralizing the government and making Versailles his residence. At the same time, he weakened the influence of the nobility and made himself the true symbol of the state. His famous words were: I am the state. A good military leader, Louis XIV expanded French territory during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). However, because of some of his political and economic decisions, Frances power started to decline after his rule.Peter the Great of Russia was remembered as the ruler who modernized the state and took it from medieval to modern times. He reformed almost every aspect of the Russian state and society. From military, bureaucracy, technology, and church, Peter the Great turned Russia into a true European force. He was also a powerful military leader who defeated the Kingdom of Sweden and brought Russia to the Baltic Sea.Portrait of Catherine II of Russia, after Alexander Roslin, the 1780s. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaCatherine the Great of Russia was another monarch who embodied absolute power. Through her careful politics, Catherine reformed the education system and the economy. One of the so-called enlightened despot, she was fascinated by Enlightenment ideas. Even though she was an absolute ruler, she revolutionized some aspects of the Russian government and laws based on the Enlightenment ideas found in the works of famous scholars such as Montesquieu, Diderot, and Voltaire. She was also a feared military leader who expanded Russian territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Poland.Absolute monarchy started to decline at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. However, its legacy and influence left an everlasting impact on world politics and the development of democratic political systems.