A ceasefire between Iran and Israel that was to become effective at midnight Eastern Daylight Time has already been breached by Iran, according to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). At 12:18 AM EDT, they

Almost two years and four months after the accident occurred, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) has announced a five-year, $10 million research project to study the long-term health outcomes from

Australias Department of Home Affairs has revealed details of 12 cases where universities were at risk of being co-opted by foreign entities for their military research.The document (pdf), disclosed

Theyre rooting for the enemy. Wall Street is acting like America didnt just strike Iran CNN Oil prices show muted gains as world awaits Iranian response to U.S. strikes NBC News Recently

U.S. House staff banned from using WhatsApp Meta's messaging app is not permitted on government devices due to alleged security issues.  By ...

Anne of Cleves is often characterized as Henry VIIIs least favorite wife. The infamous womanizer had his marriage to her annulled on the basis that her looks were so unappealing that he could not consummate the union. But the evidence of Henrys treatment of Anne after their divorce suggests that she held a special place in his heart, though as a sister and friend rather than a lover. In fact, she may have been the luckiest and most beloved of all his six wives.Introducing Wife Number FourHenry VIII, by Joos van Cleve, 1530-35, Source: Royal Collection TrustAnne of Cleves was King Henry VIIIs fourth wife. Catherine of Aragon was divorced in 1533, Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536, and Jane Seymour died in 1537. The kings wedding to Anne of Cleves took place on the 6th of January 1540. This was the annual celebration of the Feast of the Epiphany, which also marked the culmination of King Henrys Christmas festivities. This event was intended to be filled with warmth, joy, and romance.Despite the happy occasion of their wedding, their union lasted just six months. Anne and King Henry formally separated on the 9th of July that same year, having failed to fall in love with each other and, more importantly, consummate their relationship.Jane Seymour, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1536-7. Source: Kunsthistorisches MuseumAnne had the misfortune of succeeding Jane Seymour, the woman traditionally thought to have been the greatest love of King Henrys life. When he married Anne, King Henrys heart was still breaking over the premature death of his beloved Jane. We know that King Henry never really recovered from the loss of his third wife. Even when married his sixth wife nearly a decade later, it was the deceased Jane Seymour he had painted into his family portrait, rather than the living Catherine Parr.To make matters worse for Anne, Jane had been the perfect example of a 16th-century wife. She had been beautiful, meek, pious, kind-hearted, and agreeable. Whats more, she had provided England with a healthy and legitimate heir. What woman in her right mind would have wished to follow her?As a result, Anne is remembered as being a particularly unappealing, indeed so unattractive that King Henry was unable to do his duty as a husband. Consequently, she is often described as the wife Henry liked the least.Who was Anne of Cleves?Arms of the House of La Marck, by Euryrel, Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnne of Cleves was born in Dusseldorf, Germany, in 1515. At the time of her birth, King Henry had already been King of England for six years and was happily married to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.Annes father was John III of the House of La Marck, and her mother was Maria, the Duchess of Julich-Berg. She was the second of their four children. Her siblings were Sibylle (1512-1554), who would later marry the Elector of Saxony, Wilhelm (1516-1592), who would receive the Dukedom of Julich-Cleves-Berg, and Amalia (1517-1586), who would, despite her parents best efforts, remain unmarried until her death.This small nursery possessed a grand and prestigious lineage. Each child was descended from various Kings of both England and France and held particularly close ties to King Louis XII of France and the Duke of Burgundy.The children spent their earliest years together in extremely close quarters, but girls were poorly educated and prepared only for a life of Royal housekeeping and motherhood. Their limited and old-fashioned schooling consisted mainly of painting, needlework, household management, music, dancing, and card games. Nevertheless, the girls represented valuable prizes on the European marriage market.Wilhelm V., Duke of Julich, Berg, and Cleve, by Heinrich Aldegrever, 1540, Source: Metropolitan Museum of ArtIn 1527, when Anne was 11, she was betrothed to Francis, the nine-year-old son and heir of Antoine Duke of Lorraine. However, because Francis was under the age of consent for marriage, ten in Germany at the time, the betrothal was later considered unofficial. Nevertheless, the issue of this pre-contract would provide Henry with grounds for him to question the validity of his own marriage to Anne later.In 1539, Thomas Cromwell, the man who eventually lost his head for his involvement in this marriage contract, first contacted the Cleves family to propose a union between King Henry and one of the daughters. Hans Holbein the Younger was sent to paint reliable depictions of both Amalia and Anne so that King Henry could choose which he would prefer. He selected Anne.Was Anne of Cleves The Ugly One?Henry VIII and Anne of Cleves in The Tudors. Source: Screen CrushIt is entirely possible that Anne of Cleves was no great beauty. But is there any reliable evidence to support the theory that Anne was particularly unpleasant to look upon? The likelihood is that Anne was no less attractive than any other woman King Henry had ever encountered. True, she may not have possessed the same allure and sex appeal as Anne Boleyn, and she may have lacked the English-Rose-style beauty of Jane Seymour. But King Henry was the only person who ever saw fit to complain about her.Edward Hall (1498-1547) gave extremely favorable descriptions of Annes appearance. He described her hair as being long, yellow, and fair.He stated that she dressed in English fashion but with a French hood, which at the time would have been the height of fashion. Hall even went as far as to say that her clothesset forth her beauty and good visage so much that every creature rejoiced to behold her.Portrait of Anne Boleyn at Hever Castle, artist unknown, c. 1550. Source: Wikimedia CommonsCharles de Marillac (1510-1560), the French Ambassador, described her as being tall and slim, of middling beauty,and of avery assured and resolute countenance.While these are not the most flattering descriptions a woman could wish to hear, they paint the picture of a wealthy, striking, confident, well-dressed, well-maintained, and averagely pretty woman. The disappointed King Henry claimed, I see nothing in this woman as men report of her.Several portraits of Anne also survive by various artists. Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543), Cornelis Martinus Vermeulen (1644-1708), Adriaen van der Werff (1659-1722), and John June (1740-1770) are just a few of the men who captured her likeness. So often has she been painted that Londons National Portrait Gallery alone is home to 14 such depictions.Anne of Cleves, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1539, Source: Web Gallery of ArtThe image we are most familiar with is undoubtedly the version of Anne painted by Hans Holbein the Younger, commissioned by King Henry himself in 1539. It is this depiction of Anne that King Henry laid his own eyes upon long before he laid eyes upon the woman in the flesh. To the modern eye, a portrait of Anne of Cleves looks very much the same as a portrait of Catherine Howard, Catherine of Aragon, or any other woman of the era.One interesting piece of evidence suggests that Anne of Cleves believed herself to be attractive. She went as far as to declare to her friends that she possessed better looks than Catherine Parr. According to reliable reports, when it was announced that King Henry was to marry once again, Anne remarked to her ladies that she was a good deal more attractive than the Queen-to-be. She also mentioned, perhaps in a bout of jealousy, that Catherine was unaware of what she was taking on in marrying King Henry.It was Eustace Chapuys (1489-1556), the Imperial Ambassador, who just happened to overhear this conversation. Whether he approved or disapproved of Annes confidence is unclear. But since he was a man who did not usually have trouble expressing his opinion if he had thought her comments laughable, he very likely would have recorded it.Rebecca Dyson Smith as Anne of Cleves, Secrets of the Six Wives. Source: Apple TVPredictably, casting directors of our era have not yet cared to appoint an unattractive Anne. Over the last century, she has been portrayed by a wide variety of beautiful women, including Elsa Lanchester in The Private Life of King Henry VIII (1933), Pia Girard in King Henry VIII (2003), Joss Stone in The Tudors (2007), and Rebecca Dyson-Smith in the documentary series, Six Wives With Lucy Worsley.The reasons for King Henrys criticism of Annes appearance are clear. What King of England would publicly admit his inability to consummate a marriage? There was no one for him to blame for this failure other than his wife.Did Henry Have Affection for Anne of Cleeves?Anne of Cleves coat of Arms as Queen Consort, by Sodacan, 2010. Source: Wikimedia CommonsKing Henry did not love Anne of Cleves as devotedly as he had loved Catherine of Aragon. He was not as infatuated with Anne of Cleves as he had been with Anne Boleyn. He did not treasure her as he had treasured Jane Seymour. He did not lust after her in the same way he would lust after Catherine Howard, and he did not trust her and rate her as highly as he would trust and rate Catherine Parr.However, there is evidence to support the idea that he harbored a genuine, brotherly affection for Anne. There is a wealth of material to confirm the notion that he thought of her with warmth and friendship, so much so that they might have been better suited as platonic companions than as husband and wife.Henry and Annes First MeetingFirst Meeting Between Henry VIII and Anne of Cleves, by George Folingsby, 1879, Source: WikiartEven before their first meeting, King Henry had decided that his marriage to Anne was going to be a success. Having decided that he was in love with her after only a few positive descriptions from Thomas Cromwell and a swift glance at her portrait by Holbein, he was hardly able to wait for her arrival in England. So excited had he been to lay eyes upon her in the flesh that he had ridden out with a group of companions, in true Arthurian fashion, to surprise her with an early rendezvous. To make matters worse, he had come up with the ingenious idea of disguising himself as a lowly messenger and testing Anne on her ability to recognize true love.The curators of Hampton Court Palace tell us thatwhile on the way to London, Anne was surprised by a group of masked men, led by a tall, burly middle-aged man who tried to kiss her. Anne, unused to such behaviour, pushed him away in bewilderment.Anne had thought that she had several days left to prepare herself for her first meeting with her future husband and was horrified when this group of rowdy and excitable gentlemen burst in on her and her temporary household unexpectedly. The Royal-blooded Catherine of Aragon, the sophisticated Anne Boleyn, and the well-prepared Jane Seymour would have recognized this for what it was, a game of chivalric tradition and courtly love. However, the foreign and ill-prepared Anne of Cleves was completely caught off guard by what she perceived to be a random attack.Joss Stone as Anne of Cleves in The Tudors. Source: PinterestWe are told that, immediately upon seeing his soon-to-be bride, King Henry took her in his arms and kissed her. We can take this as a sign that he was initially pleased. He found her attractive enough to pay her the compliment of physical affection.Unfortunately, Anne did not recognize King Henry as quickly as he had hoped, and it was after this fiasco that things swiftly went downhill. Perhaps if their first meeting had gone as planned, and if their relationship had not started out with confusion and miscommunication, it might have had more of a chance at survival.The Unhappy Marriage of Henry and Anne?The Arms of Manners, Dukes of Rutland and Barons of Manners, by sodacan, 2017. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnne had no complaints about her marriage. If she thought there was something wrong with her marriage, she certainly did not voice her concerns to those around her. Instead, she complimented King Henry as a sweet and kind-hearted husband. In February, just a month after their wedding, Anne told the Countess of Rutland that she and he conversed twice daily.When he comes to bed,Anne began,he kisseth me, and taketh me by the hand, and biddeth me good night, sweetheart.She continued,and in the morning he kisseth me and biddeth me farewell, darling.Henry and Annes Divorce SettlementHever Castle from the Moat, by David Cox, 1850, Source: Abbott and Holder LtdHenry granted Anne a generous divorce settlement. The best that most ex-queens could hope for was a life in obscurity. Most would have been thankful for the chance to live out their days in a prestigious but quiet countryside Abbey. But Anne of Cleves was granted the greatest gift King Henry could have given, the chance to begin her life again. As far as King Henry was concerned, Anne had done nothing wrong. Therefore, it made no difference to him if she enjoyed what she was technically owed as a former Queen of England.Anne received an extremely generous divorce settlement. She was given manors in Hampshire formerly owned by Breamore Priory and Southwick Priory and, even more excitingly, Hever Castle, the childhood home of the deceased Anne Boleyn.Anne was free to remain in England and to live as a private person in her own right. She was answerable to no one but the King, and since by this time he was planning to spend most of his time in bed with Catherine Howard, he had very little care for what his ex-wife might do.Since King Henry confirmed that Anne was still a virgin, she was free to marry whoever she chose. Unsurprisingly, this was one opportunity she chose not to take.Finally, Henry placed her above almost all other women in England. After her divorce, Anne was hardly treated as an outcast. Instead, she was considered an honorary member of King Henrys family. Anne and King Henry grew to like each other, probably much more so than they had when they were married, and even became fond of each others company.King Henry insisted that all should refer to Anne as the Kings beloved sister.Such was her favor that he decreed she was to be given precedence over all other women in England, save his own wife and daughters.Anne Of Cleves: The Wife Who LivedAnne of Cleves, by Hans Holbein the Younger, c.1540s. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDivorced, beheaded, died; divorced, beheaded, survived.Over the last five centuries, historians have been conditioned to believe that it was Catherine Parr who was the most successful of King Henrys wives. She is the queen who appears with a resounding victory at the end of the verse written above. Traditionally, it is she who is remembered asthe one who survived.While Catherine of Aragon suffered in exile, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard lost their heads, and Jane Seymour died in agony bearing a Prince, Catherine Parr managed to avoid the inevitable without so much as a scrape on her hand. So relieved are we to hear of her narrow escape that we can almost forget that she died just a year later while bearing the child of her final husband, Thomas Seymour.Although she is labeled simply asthe one who was divorced,it was Anne of Cleves who survived King Henry the longest. Her life went on for another decade after his death, having been provided with a clean slate and a good chance of happiness, she certainly made the most of that life. Anne did not live in obscurity after her husbands death, but made many notable public appearances. Most significantly of all, she took part in the Coronation procession of her daughter-in-law, Queen Mary I, on the first of October in 1553.Mary I, by Hans Ewouth, 1555-8, Source: Wikimedia CommonsAnnes only sadness was that she never had the chance to return home to Germany. Evidence suggests that she was generally content in England, but she did express the occasional bout of homesickness in her letters.Anne died at Chelsea Old Manor on the 16th of July, 1557. The most likely cause was an unknown form of cancer. Just a few weeks later, on the 4th of August, Anne was buried in Westminster Abbey. She received Catholic rites, as she had requested.Anne mentioned many friends and family members in her will. These included her brother, her sister, and her sister-in-law, as well as Queen Mary, the future Queen Elizabeth, the Duchess of Suffolk, and the Countess of Arundel, all of whom she counted among her closest friends. She left money and belongings to each of her favored servants and beseeched Mary and Elizabeth to employ them in their households.Raphael Holinshed (1525-1582) described Anne asa lady of right commendable regard, courteous, gentle, a good housekeeper, and very bountiful to her servants.He confidently stated that there had never beenany quarrel, tale bearing or mischievous intrigues in her court, and she was loved by her domestics. Anne was remembered by everyone who served her as a kind, fair, and easy-going mistress. It seems that nobody had a bad word to say about her.The Old Chelsea Manor House, 1873. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe body of Anne of Cleves now lies on the South Side of the High Alter at Westminster Abbey. According to the Abbey, her monument is a low stone structure of three sections with carvings showing her initials with a crown, lions heads and skulls and crossed bones.Her Epitaph simply readsAnne of Cleves, Queen of England, born 1515, died 1557.Anne Of Cleves: The Wife King Henry Loved Most?Anne of Cleves and Henry VIII in The Tudors. Source: Apple TVWhile Anne of Cleves may not have been the wife King Henry loved most, there is absolutely no doubt that he genuinely liked and respected her as a woman in her own right. Certainly, she was not the despised and ill-treated Queen that so many people now perceive her to have been.On the day his marriage to Anne was annulled, King Henry delivered to her a comforting letter.You shall find us a perfect friend,he assured her,content to repute you as our dearest sister. We shall, within five or six days, determine your state minding to endow you with four thousand pounds of yearly revenue, from your loving brother and friend.If that is not good enough proof of King Henrys affection for Anne, what is?

In the late 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I annexed several Turkic emirates to ensure the political unity of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). The lords who had their principalities usurped by Bayezid requested the aid of Timur, founder of the Samarqand-based Timurid dynasty, and self-proclaimed protector of Muslims. At the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Bayezid and Timur fought to secure their political hegemony. However, Bayezids luck seemingly ran out on the battlefield. Both the Sultan and his Serbian wife Despina were captured by their rival.The Ambitious ThunderboltSultan Bayezid I, by Paolo Veronese, 16th century. Source: MeisterdruckeBorn in 1360 as the son of Ottoman Sultan Murad I and his Greek wife Gliek Hatun, Bayezid was educated by the foremost contemporary scholars in the fields of Islamic philosophy, warfare, and statecraft. The first known mention of the young ehzade (prince) concerns his marriage in 1381 to Devletah Hatun, a princess of the Turkic Germiyanid Dynasty. Devletahs dowry included much territory across Anatolia, which subsequently came under Bayezids control.As a prince who both governed territories and commanded a wing of his fathers army, Bayezid gained a reputation as a daring and ambitious but somewhat impulsive leader. These characteristics earned him the moniker, thunderbolt or Yildirim in Turkish, which is how his father referred to him.As part of his ambitious nature, Bayezid dreamt of expanding his dynastys power and conquering Constantinople, the imperial capital of the Byzantine Empire. In his youth, Bayezid was most likely exposed to the conquest Hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) which predicted that a great Muslim army and even greater conqueror would one day conquer Constantinople. Yet, Bayezids position as a prince was one of submission and obedience to his sultan father. Any desire for conquest would remain unfulfilled until he became Sultan, a position dependent not only on his fathers death but also on his ability to defeat his brothers who under Turkic custom had an equal claim to the throne.The Thunderbolt StrikesThe forces of Sultan Murad I and Prince Lazar of Serbia battle on the fields ofKosovo (1389), ca. 1460. Source: Koninklijke BibliotheekBy the late 14th century, the once petty Ottoman emirate had become a great military power. Expanding out of Anatolia, Bayezids father Murad I had been the first sultan to develop the small ghaza (holy war) raids into Balkan territories into fully-fledged conquests. By 1387, parts of Greece and all Southern Macedonia were captured. Murads advancement into Serbia was initially halted by Serbian Lord Lazar. Yet, as the Ottomans steamrolled through the Balkans, the two rulers met face-to-face at Kosovo Polje in 1389.In this decisive battle, both Prince Lazar and Sultan Murad were killed. The ever-astute Bayezid quickly secured the allegiance of his fathers statesmen, although this technically could not prevent his brother Yakub from asserting his right to rule. According to popular tradition, Bayezid had Yakub summoned to his fathers tent on the field of Kosovo. The unassuming prince was then strangled to death with a silk cord.Now, nothing stood in the way of Bayezid and his aspirations of rulership and conquest.From Sehzade to SultanTurkish miniature of the Crusaders and Ottomans battling in Nicopolos, by Nakka Osman, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBy the beginning of Bayezids rule in 1389, the Ottomans controlled vassal principalities across Western Asia and Europe. The Byzantine emperor, the Serbian Despot, and several Turkic chiefs in Anatolia, like the Karamanid and Candarid dynasties, came under Ottoman control. These vassal states were expected to lend military support to Ottoman campaigns, even if it meant fighting against their co-religionists.Bayezid quickly adapted to his new role; in 1393, he stormed into the Balkans, bringing Danubian Bulgaria under his rule. Next, he annexed Nicopolis (Northern Bulgaria) and executed the Bulgarian King Shishman. Bayezid also moved the Ottomans toward a more centralized system of governance.Fearing the ever-increasing Ottoman encroachment, Pope Boniface IX declared a new crusade against the Turks in 1394. Bayezid had put Constantinople under siege that same year, adding to the sense of urgency. Several European nations, such as France, Hungary, Germany, and Wallachia swiftly banded together their forces to create a Crusader army. Yet, theyalong with independent Western Knightswere no match for the highly organized and united Ottoman army. Commanded by the sultan, the elite Janissary forcesslave soldiers who were taken as a tax from Christian families in the Balkansand sipahis (cavalry) led the Ottomans to a stunning victory at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396).Bayezids victory was, in both Anatolia and Europe, a confirmation of his glory and strength. Yet, the conquerors dreams of a centralized empire were halted by the existence of Turkic principalities who demanded independence. The question remained as to how Bayezid would ensure Ottoman supremacy over these Muslim polities within the boundaries of Islamic law, which forbade war against other Muslims.Stretched ThinMap of the Turkic beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia, along with depiction of a Turkic bey (chieftain), from the Catalan Atlas, by Abraham Cresques, 1375. Source: Wikimedia CommonsReturning to Anatolia in 1398, Bayezid immediately began to plan the subjugation of his greatest rivals. By the end of the year, he had added the Karamanids and the principality of Kadi Burhaneddin to his empire. This was not surprising considering Bayezids self-image. In 1395, the Sultan had written to the Abbasid caliph in Cairo to secure his title as Sultan-al-Rm, or Sultan of the Byzantine (Anatolian) lands. Of course, Bayezid was not only motivated by ideas of grandiosity or religious fervor. By gaining control of Beylik lands as far as East as Erzincan (Eastern Turkey), the sultan secured important Silk Road trade and caravan routes, and thus, increased state revenue and wealth.However, the Turkic beys (chieftains) who ruled the different branches of the semi-nomadic Turkic settlers were greatly distressed by the loss of their lands and power. Desperate to repel Bayezid, they appealed to Timur (or Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol raider-turned-ruler, to protect them against the Ottoman powerhouse.The Wrath of TimurAmir Timur (Tamerlane), by Sekko. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTimur (b.1330s, d.1405) was born in Modern-day Uzbekistan to a minor nobleman of the Barlas Tribe, a Turkicized nomadic Mongolian group. As a young man, he gained a reputation as an astute military leader in the service of the Mongol Khans. Due to a leg injury, Timur developed a limp, earning him the epithet the Lame. Following his meteoric rise to power, Timur expanded his empirewhich reached from Persia to Delhimainly through incessant campaigns and conquests. Such sieges were also conducted as far west as Armenia and Eastern Anatolia, where regional lords came under his influence.It was their mutual claim to power that brought Bayezid and Timur in contact with one another. Correspondence between Bayezid and Timur indicates that the former viewed Timur as a caffre (from Turkish kafir meaning infidel), a view partially related to Timurs Mongol ancestry. This, in Bayezids eyes, made Timur a legitimate target for holy war. On the flip side, Timur viewed himself as the protector of Muslims, such as the Turkic rulers whose lands were being usurped by Bayezid.Several insulting letters were exchanged between the rivals; Timur referred to Bayezids armed forces as poll-tax-paying caffres (Anooshahr, 2008, p.125) most likely referring to the Christian vassals who sent military support to Bayezid. The Ottoman sultan, on the other hand, claimed that Timur would shed blood, and violate the honor of women (Anooshahr, 2008, p.123).These tensions boiled over when Bayezid refused to deliver Kara Yusufruler of the Karakoyunlu emirate who had sought asylum in Anatoliato Timur. In the Central Asian conquerors eyes, this was an open declaration of war.The Battle of AnkaraSultan Bayezid Imprisoned by Timur, by Stanisaw Chlebowski, 1878. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPreoccupied by his siege of Constantinople, Bayezid was caught off guard by Timurs entry into and sack of Sivas (Central Turkey). Yet, true to his reputation as a thunderbolt, the Ottoman sultan readied his forces for battle, and hurriedly marched toward Ankara, hoping that Timur would execute a premature attack. However, Timur was a master of war, and rather than follow Bayezids army, he invaded the latters undefended territories. Bayezid then moved his army to Tokat, around 360 miles east of Ankara. On a seemingly never-ending march, Bayezids forces began to tire, no doubt affected by the blazing summer heat.Timurs army was much more flexible. They were accustomed to long sieges and had a cavalry that used steppe warfare tactics. As a result, they conducted efficient attacks and swift retreats, destroying their enemies while suffering minimal damage themselves. On the road to Ankara, Timurs forces had laid waste to significant land and resources that Bayezids army needed. Reaching the city before the Ottomans, Timur cut off the citys water supplies, which exacerbated the condition of Bayezids parched soldiers.When the two armies finally met on the battlefield, things only got worse for Bayezid. He was deserted by his Tartar (Mongol) and Turk fighters, who chose to fight alongside Timur. The Ottoman army lost further traction as the Serbian flanks retreated. However, Bayezid refused to abandon the battlefield until the very end. Needless to say, this led to his capture by Timurs forces.A Humiliating FateBayezid is depicted in a humiliating position in a cage, under the table, and as a footstool, note his wife Despina, semi-nude and serving food to Timurid men, Germany, Album Amicorum, 16th century. Source: SothebysThe Timurid victory was a great blow to the prestige and reputation that the Ottomans had built up over the previous century. Following Bayezids defeat, their capital city of Bursa was plundered by Timurs forces. The Turkic lords had their principalities restored to them, resulting in a significant loss of territory for the Ottomans. Perhaps most significantly, Bayezid and his wife Despina Hatun, sister of Bayezids Serbian ally Prince Stefan Lazarevi, were captured. The Ottoman Empire was also thrown into civil war, with Bayezids sons Isa, Mehmet, Musa, Suleyman, and Mustafa battling for the throne.The captivity and death of Bayezid also created a deep scar on the Ottoman psyche. Several versions of the story circulated in both Turkey and Europe. Later Ottoman historians like Akpaazade (d.1484) claimed that Bayezid committed suicide by smashing his head against the bars of his cage. However, contemporary travelers to Timurs court, such as Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, did not mention the existence of any cages. Still, this version of the story gained popularity in the European imagination. In English playwright Christopher Marlowes 1587 play Tamburlaine, both Bayezid and his wife Despina are portrayed as committing suicide in this way.Ultimately, Despina survived. However, to prevent such dishonor from recurring, later generations of Ottomans regulated the harem institution more strictly. Bayezid was not so lucky; he died under suspicious circumstances, and the cause of his death remains an issue of speculation. Whether the sultan committed suicide, died of heartbreak and humiliation, or was poisoned by Timur, this event serves as a reminder that unbridled ambition often comes with dire consequences.Bibliography:Anooshahr, Ali, The Ghazi Sultans and the Frontiers of Islam: A Comparative Study of the Late Medieval and Early Modern Periods, (Routledge, 2008).Inalcik, Halil, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600, (London: Phoenix, 1973).Imber, Colin, The Ottoman Empire: The Structure of Power, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).Baer, Marc David, The Ottomans: Khans, Caesars, and Caliphs, (Basic Books, 2021).

The late Middle Ages and the Early Modern period saw the Age of Exploration really come into play, from a Eurocentric viewpoint. Some of the biggest names in history are to be found in this period: Christopher Columbus, Vasco de Gama, Marco Polo, and perhaps a man that youve never even heard of: Henry the Navigator. This Portuguese explorer helped to establish Portugal as a global power in the 15th century, and in the article below we will discover all there is to know about this incredible man.Henry the Navigators Early LifeA portrait largely presumed to be Henry the Navigator, by Nuno Gonalves, c. 1470. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHenrique, Duke of Viseu, was unsurprisingly born into Portuguese royalty. His father was the Portuguese King John I (r. 1385-1433), and his mother was Philippa of Lancastera member of the English royal family, her father being John of Gaunt (Edward IIIs fourth son, thus making Philippa of Lancaster a granddaughter of King Edward III of England, and young Henry a great-grandson of the legendary English king).Henry was born on March 4, 1394 and was the third surviving son of John I and Philippa of Lancaster. It is presumed that he grew up in and around the Portuguese city of Porto.Henrys first fore into exploration was when he was aged 21; with the help of his brothers and father, he captured the Moorish port of Ceuta on August 21, 1415, which had been a home to the Barbary Pirates for a number of years. The pirates used this port as their base from which to attack many of the coastal cities of Portugal and they depopulated entire villages and sold people into the African slave trade. Capturing the city for Portugal was thus a huge win for young Henry.It was this initial success that inspired young Henry to explore further. His primary objective was to explore the African coast, in search of the legendary kingdom of Prester Johna Christian semi-legendary king who was said to rule over a lost Christian nation in the Orient.At this time, Europeans knew very little about Africa, and Henry was determined to find either Prester John or the source of the African gold trade. And he never looked backbecoming an explorer who would go on to discover sights far beyond even his own imagination.Funding Henrys AdventuresKing John I of Portugal, c. 1450. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough Henry was born into the nobility, he still had to find a valuable source of income to be able to fund his exotic travels.In 1419, Henrys father appointed him as Governor of the Algarve, the southern region of Portugal which borders the Atlantic Ocean. This helped to fund Henrys expeditions as he held a monopoly on tuna fishing in the Algarve. A year later, his father made him the governor of the Military Order of Christ, which was Portugals answer to the succession of the Knights Templar; Henry would hold this position as governor for the rest of his life, and it became an important source of income for him.These two appointments were key in funding Henrys explorations, but he was also well-versed diplomatically, too. His second brother, Peter, Duke of Coimbra, embarked on a tour of Europe, and Henry asked him to bring him any geographical materials back that he could and he returned with a map of Venice. All of these notions went on to inspire Henry to travel and discover what lay beyond the borders of Portugal.John I died in 1433, and Henrys eldest brother was crowned King Edward of Portugal. He granted Henry all profits from trading within the areas he discovered, as well as the authorization to go on expeditions beyond Cape Bojador in the Western Sahara region. Edward died in 1441, and Henry then supported the efforts of his next brother, Peter, in his regency during the minority of Edwards son, the future King Afonso V. Henry received a confirmation of this levy for his support.Portuguese Exploration EffortsLisbon in the Age of Discovery, by Franz Hogenberg and Georg Braun, 1572. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDuring Peters regency, he supported Portuguese maritime exploration and expansion in both Africa and the Atlantic Ocean. It was during this regency that Henry promoted the colonization of the Azores, a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, which are still under Portuguese control today.Much of the Portuguese Empires early exploration efforts were centered on the western coast of Africa, and thanks to Henrys control over the Algarve, this gave him a prime spot from which to base his exploration attempts.As part of his exploration efforts, Henry employed a number of cartographers, who helped map out the West African coast. Much of modern-day Mauritania was mapped out by Henry the Navigator long before other European explorers had even visited the continent.The Logistics of Exploring in the 15th CenturyA statue of Gil Eannes in Lagos, photograph by Glen Bowman, taken in 2007. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFor a man who was called the Navigator, the ships that Henry sailed in were remarkably small. They were called caravels and were used as they were light and easy to control and maneuverand most of the voyages that Henry undertook only used one or two of these ships. They were much smaller than the ships used by his Chinese contemporary, Zheng He.It was during this time period that Portuguese navigatorsincluding Henrybegan to understand oceanic wind patterns, and it was this understanding that helped spur Henrys exploration efforts. It was the understanding of these wind patterns that was crucial for the success of the exploration of the New World, as well as the slave trade in later centuries.Naturally, Portugals main rivals at this time were Spain and particularly the Castilian monarchy. One of the first areas that Henry ordered to be colonized was Madeira, a small island not far from both Africa and Portugal, and it was largely in response to Spains colonization of the Canary Islands that Henry ordered the colonization of Madeira.Nevertheless, Madeira would soon become a key colony for the Portuguese and a strategic location from which they could organize expeditions. Most historians agree that it was around 1420 that Madeira was colonized fully by the Portuguese. Like the Azores, it is still under Portuguese rule today.The Portuguese in AfricaPortuguese presence in Africa and the Middle East 1342-1801, by Hugh Refachino, 2020. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs mentioned earlier, western Africa was a key area for the Portuguese. Much of Mauritiuss coastline had been mapped out by Henrys cartographers, but there was still much more of this vast landmass for the Navigator to explore.Until 1424, Cape Bojador (on the western coast of the Sahara Desert) was the most southerly point of Africa that European explorers had reached by boat. It was rumored that the end of the world lay beyond the Cape and that the waters were treacherous and filled with ungodly sea monsters, simply waiting for unknowing sailors to sail into their watery lairs.However, Henry was determined to find out the truth. Over the course of the next decade, he sent 15 expeditions to go beyond the Cape, with each of them returning unsuccessfully, with a myriad of excuses.However, in 1434, Gil Eannes became the first European explorer to go south of the Cape in almost 2,000 years, when Hanno (a Carthaginian explorer) had done so.It was largely thanks to the caravels that the Portuguese were able to go furtherCape Blanco (a peninsula between Western Sahara and Mauritania) was reached in 1441, and two years after that the Portuguese sighted the Bay of Arguin, which is also in modern-day Mauritania. By 1448, the Portuguese had set up a trading fort on the island.The planting of the cross by Bartolomeu Dias at the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, by F. Benda, c. 1750. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn 1444, another Portuguese explorer (Dinis Dias) saw the Senegal River, and by this point, the Portuguese had passed the southern boundary of the Sahara. This was one of Henry the Navigators earliest goals that he had finally achieved: Portugal had passed the Muslim-ruled lands of the Sahara and thus had a route into Africa without having to go through the Muslim-controlled Sahara.This meant that Portugal had officially circumnavigated the Sahara Desert, and as a result, both slaves and gold began pouring into the country. Algiers and Tunis (the modern-day capitals of Algeria and Tunisia, respectively) suffered greatly from this discovery, while the Portuguese Empire and economy boomed, and became incredibly rich almost overnight.Between 1444 and 1446, almost 40 vessels sailed from Lagos in the Algarve on Henrys behalf, and mercantile expeditions began.Another Portuguese explorer, Alvise Cadamosto, became the first recorded European to reach the Cape Verde islands off the coast of western Africa, which he claimed for Portugal, which he did so in 1456. This was the last major Portuguese discovery in Africa before Henrys death aged 66 in 1460.Henry the Navigators LegacyVasco da Gama, unknown artist, c. 1525. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIt is easy to see the influence that Henry had on Portuguese exploration, including the influx of gold and slaves into the Portuguese Empire. Portugal became one of the first European nations to have a grip on Africa before the Scramble for Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries.Henrys status as a member of the Portuguese royalty undoubtedly helped his cause, but he was diplomatically intelligent enough to know who to support and when, and utilizing his resources carefully and wisely.Henry the Navigators biggest legacy was the expansion of the Portuguese Empire, which would not have happened when it did if it was not for Henry. For example, by 1462, the Portuguese had reached as far as modern-day Sierra Leone on the West African coastline. In 1490, Bartolomeu Dias successfully proved that Africa could be circumnavigated when he reached the Cape of Good Hope (the most southerly point of Africa). Just eight years after this discovery, another great Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, became the first European sailor to reach India by sea.It is little wonder that even today, Henry is regarded as the patron of Portuguese exploration.

Genghis Khans genetic legacy has never been doubted. The question is, how many kids did Genghis Khan have? According to historical records, Khans official heirs numbered four through his primary wife Brte. Married to Temujin, later Khan, at age 17, Brtes original tribe helped cement his political grip. She would later help Khan rule at home. More importantly, she bore him his four official heirs: Jochi, Chagatai, gedei, and Tolui. Born between 1182 and 1191, they helped Khan expand the Empire after 1206.Brte was not Genghis Khans only wife- just the important one. Altogether, Khans wives numbered six, all Mongolian, who gave them over thirteen children. With his other wives and concubines, he fathered over 120 children.Evidence of Genghis Khans OffspringBorte, Genghis Khans Wife. Source: The MetThere is no doubt Khan had children, possibly into the thousands. His official offspring are known, plus indirect evidence from concubines. Khan also kept a harem, organized into camps called ordos. From here, its thought that Genghis Khan could have fathered thousands of children, beyond the official offspring. Evidence must be gleaned from historical records or DNA evidence.One of the best historical sources is The Secret History of the Mongols. Written in the 13th century, this source covers Khans reign. The details cover Khans four primary sons and mention his daughters. Central Asia and surrounding groups possess oral traditions linking Khan as an ancestor. The Hazara of Afghanistan claim this heritage, given that Mongol clans settled during the invasions.Oral traditions are valuable but sometimes unreliable, but the Hazara claim Genghis Khan as an ancestor. While pockets of Mongol DNA exist in Afghanistan, doubts remain about the tribes lineage.Genghis Khans Heir gedei. Source: National Palace Museum, TaiwanA 2003 genetic study claims that Khans DNA spread across Asia, even to Russias southern plains. Utilizing the Y or male chromosome, the study traced Khans DNA across the breadth of the former Mongol Empire. The Y chromosome is passed from father to son.The studys scientists explain this in distinctive Y chromosomes that spread too rapidly. Originating from Mongolia about 1,000 years ago, the Y chromosome crept into many regions. The study asserts that up to 8% of males in the conquered territories carry Khans gene. Or in simple terms, roughly this 8% represents 0.5% of all males worldwide.Chinghis (Genghis) Khan Family Tree Source: WikimediaHowever, this study of Genghis Khans direct DNA in so many ancestors is under challenge. The biggest is a lack of direct DNA evidence. Khans burial location remains unknown, so there cant be any direct comparison. A 2017 study found different results regarding the Y chromosome. This casts doubts on the one DNA source.Recent research throws doubt on the 2003 study results. Scientists used a bigger study base, gathering DNA from thousands more across Central Asia. The result? The Y chromosome linked to Genghis Khan appeared 1000 years before Genghis Khans empire building. Thus, there is little or no link.Genghis Khans Descendants and Their New DynastiesMongols at war, 14th-century watercolor. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGenghis Khan built the Mongol Empire with superior tactics, organization, and blood. He achieved Pax Mongolia, creating a peace that the Romans longed for. His four acknowledged sons expanded into Poland, the Middle East, and China. Besides establishing their khanates, these four rulers left a genetic trail that possibly linked them to their progenitor.Genghis Khan maintained a harem with many concubines and wives. gedei, Jochi, Chagatei, and Tolui kept large harems as per the Mongol custom. Jochi fathered fourteen sons, and his brothers at least eleven more. The idea, however, of Khan fathering thousands himself is a stretch.Separating Genghis Khans DNA Myth from RealityA portrait of Genghis Khan, 14th century. Source: National Palace Museum, TaipeiThe common thought today is that Khan had thousands of children, which later spread to millions. There is no doubt his DNA diffused across his empire. However, the source of Genghis Khans Y chromosome is likely the larger group of Khans descendants. Groups like the Afghan Hazara use their oral history to assert a direct link to Khan. Oral histories are invaluable, but here theres no confirmed evidence.Time distorted the question of how many children Genghis Khan had. The Mongols customarily kept large harems. From his various marriages or liaisons, Khan did produce numerous children. The thousands of children myth cannot be backed by solid evidence. Genetic studies prove that a Y chromosome linked to his heirs is widespread. Unfortunately, due to a lack of records plus a shaky DNA link, theres no telling the exact number of children.