Why Fort Monroe Mattered: A Historic Fortress at the Heart of U.S. Defense - History Collection 12. Witness to Technological Advancements Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. Over its long service, Fort Monroe evolved alongside military technology. From early muzzle-loading cannons to cutting-edge communications and radar systems, the fort continually adapted to new...

The question of King Arthurs historicity continues to be debated. However, something that is frequently seen in many modern debates is the claim that Arthur, if he existed, was definitely not a king. Rather, he would have been just a war leader. This is based on the supposed fact that the earliest sources do not describe Arthur as a king. However, is this claim really supported by the evidence?Arthur as the Leader of BattlesStatue of Geoffrey of Monmouth at Tintern Station, Wales. Source: Wikimedia CommonsTraditionally, Arthur is remembered as the king of the Britons early in the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain. He was a king who fought valiantly against the invaders. At least, that is the version of the legend which is famous today. However, it is commonly argued that this is actually contradicted by the earliest description of Arthurs career, found in the Historia Brittonum. This document dates to c. 830 CE. Its description of Arthurs battles against the Saxons begins:Then Arthur fought against them in those days with the kings of the Britons, but he himself was the leader of battles.A common interpretation is that this line presents a contrast between Arthur and the kings of the Britons. Hence, this would mean that Arthur himself was not one of the kings. Allegedly, the idea that Arthur was a king first appears in the writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth, who wrote the Historia Regum Britanniae in c. 1137.Arthurs Kingship Prior to Geoffrey of MonmouthSt Cadocs Church, Llancarfan, Wales. Source: National Churches TrustIn reality, modern scholarship has revealed some serious issues with this popular view. For example, the idea that Geoffrey of Monmouth was the first to present Arthur as a king is simply not true. Consider, for example, what we find in the Vita Cadoci (Life of St Cadoc):In that same time a certain very brave leader of the British, called Ligessauc, the son of Eliman, also surnamed Llaw hir, that is, Long Hand, slew three soldiers of Arthur, most illustrious king of Britannia.Notice that this source clearly describes Arthur as the most illustrious king of Britannia. This source dates to the late 11th century, approximately 1086. In other words, it dates from about half a century before Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the Historia Regum Britanniae. Therefore, it is definitely not the case that Geoffrey of Monmouth was the one who created the idea of King Arthur.Culhwch and Olwen at the court of Ysbaddaden, by E. Wallcousins, 1905. Source: Wikimedia CommonsWhen we look at Welsh texts, we come to the same basic conclusion. The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen is not nearly as precisely dated as the Vita Cadoci, but modern scholarship generally places it in around 1100. Hence, it probably predates Geoffreys Historia Regum Britanniae by almost four decades. In any case, it shows no influence whatsoever from Geoffrey of Monmouth, preserving the more authentic Welsh tradition. Whether it actually dates from before Monmouths book or not has very little bearing on the issue.In this text, a character named Culhwch addresses Arthur as Sovereign Ruler of this island. The word translated Sovereign Ruler is Pen Teyrned. The word pen is Welsh for head, often in the sense of chief. The word teyrned is related to teyrn, meaning king. Therefore, this Welsh tale, which preserves pre-Galfridian tradition, presents Arthur as the chief king of Britain.Arthur as an Emperor in Welsh TraditionIllustration of Geraint, son of Erbin, by Howard Pyle, 1910. Source: Wikimedia CommonsSo far, we have seen that Arthur is definitely presented as a king of the Britons prior to Geoffrey of Monmouth. In fact, at least two pre-Galfridian sources present him as the high king of Britain, one of which is a Welsh tale. When we look further into the Welsh sources, we see that there is another title often assigned to Arthur. This title is the Welsh amherawdyr. This word comes directly from the Latin imperator and means emperor.Several Welsh tales use this title to describe Arthur. At least one source appears to substantially pre-date Geoffrey. This is a text known as Gereint fil Erbin, or Geraint son of Erbin. This poem is an elegy to Geraint, apparently a historical king of Dumnonia in the 6th century. The date of the poem is uncertain, but the weight of modern scholarship appears to date it to c. 900. Hence, we can see that Arthur was referred to as a so-called emperor long before Geoffrey made him the high king of the Britons.Was Arthur a King in the Historia Brittonum?Defeat of the Saxons by Arthur, from John Cassells Illustrated History of England, 1865. Source: WikisourceHowever, what about the Historia Brittonum, which dates to even earlier than this? Simply put, the interpretation that the line quoted earlier prevents Arthur from being a king reads more into the text than it actually says. The fact that Arthur is said to have fought along with the kings of the Britons does not mean that Arthur himself was not also a king.For comparison, consider the fact that a later manuscript version of the Historia Brittonum says that Arthur fought with the kings and military force of Britain. Obviously, whether he was a king or not, Arthur composed part of the military force of Britain. Yet, in this line, he is said to have fought with the military force. Therefore, this demonstrates that just because Arthur is said to have fought with, or alongside, a certain group of people, this does not in any way mean that Arthur himself is excluded from that group. Hence, there is nothing in the Historia Brittonums description that prevents Arthur from being a king.A cairn on the summit of Carn Gaffalt, possibly the location mentioned in the Mirabilia in association with Arthur the Soldier. Source: Peter Standing, CC-BY 2.0However, as well as the Historia Brittonum itself, we also need to bear in mind the Mirabilia. This is a document which is attached to the back of the Historia Brittonum and appears to date from about the same time. In this document, a certain wonder of Britain is mentioned in association with Arthur. In this passage, Arthur is given the designation miles. This is commonly translated as soldier, which supposedly suggests that Arthur himself was not a king.In reality, the meaning of miles was not so limited. In fact, historian Henry Osborn Taylor pointed out that the warrior class began to fight primarily on horseback from the 8th century onwards. Hence, the word miles began to adopt the connotation of a horse-mounted warrior rather than a simple foot soldier.Given that the medieval Welsh regularly emphasized the military prowess of their legendary kings, a 9th-century text describing him as a miles is not inconsistent with him being a king.Arthurs Kingship Before the Historia BrittonumOpening of Preiddeu Annwn, MS Peniarth 2, folio 25v, c. 1330. Source: National Library of WalesHowever, the most up-to-date scholarship includes the research of John T Koch on Welsh poetry. While not all scholars agree, Koch is one of the leading experts in medieval Welsh linguistics. Based on an analysis of the language used, Koch has argued that the Welsh poem Preiddeu Annwn should be dated to c. 750. Previously, it was usually dated to c. 900. If Kochs earlier dating is correct, this would settle the issue of whether Arthur was depicted as a king in the earliest legends.This poem tells the story of Arthur setting off on a voyage to a distant land. The poem begins:I will praise the sovereign, supreme king of the land, who hath extended his dominion over the shore of the world.The supreme king mentioned here is Arthur. This poem unambiguously presents Arthur not only as a king, but the high king of Britain, just like we find in later Welsh tradition, such as in Culhwch and Olwen.How King Arthur Was Always a KingDepiction of King Arthur from the Flores Historiarum, 13th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsContrary to the common claim that Arthur is not portrayed as a king until Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, Arthur appears as a royal ruler in many pre-Galfridian texts. There is the Latin Vita Cadoci, which calls him the most illustrious king of Britannia. There is Culhwch and Olwen, which calls him Sovereign Ruler of this island. There is Gereint fil Erbin, which calls him emperor. And finally, we have seen that the earliest source of all may well be Preiddeu Annwn, a poem describing Arthurs voyage to a distant land. This source, which possibly dates to as early as c. 750, calls Arthur the supreme king.In contrast, the idea that Arthur was not a king is simply based on a dubious interpretation of the Historia Brittonum and the Mirabilia. However, the references to Arthur in both of those sources do not actually refute the notion that Arthur was a king. The weight of evidence, then, shows that King Arthur is not a late concept in the Arthurian legends.

Cradles of civilization are regions where humans developed complex social systems independently. There are six accepted cradles of civilization: Egypt, India, Mesopotamia, China, Olmec, and Caral-Supe. The first societies all formed around agriculture. The Caral-Supe, who emerged on the coast of Peru around 5000 years ago, may have been able to form a civilization thanks to marine resources rather than agriculture. In the 3rd millennium BCE, the Caral-Supe region may have been the most densely populated in the world.What Is a Civilization?Map of early River Valley Civilizations. Source: Radford UniversityAnthropologists have various criteria for a group to qualify as a civilization. While the term was once used to divide societies perceived as superior to those considered inferior, today, scientists have developed a metric. Generally, civilizations consist of urban, sedentary communities. They produce tools that are utilized to create a surplus of food. This abundance leads to a division of labor, which in turn gives rise to a hierarchical social and political order.Large-scale agriculture seems to be the logical catalyst for meeting these metrics. Each cradle of civilization rose near a river valley. Egypt on the Nile River, India on the Indus, Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates, and China on the Yellow River. The other two civilizations began along several small rivers: the Olmec near the Gulf of Mexico and Caral by Perus Pacific coast. River valleys provided fertile land for crops and plentiful water. Irrigation permitted large-scale farming, which led to class systems based on labor and ownership. When abundant harvests exceeded basic needs, additional occupations were adopted in growing cities.The Origins of Caral-SupeHarvest scenes from the Tomb of Menna, by Charles K. Wilkinson, original c. 1400-1352 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkHumans have lived in Peru since approximately 10,000 BCE, ranging from the low coastline to high in the Andes mountains to the east. They began cultivating crops as early as 6000 BCE. Yields were supplemented by hunting and fishing. Food production was sufficient to shift to a sedentary lifestyle. Settlements developed independently across the region, but the north-central portion comprised a nexus of river valleys that facilitated cross-cultural contact. Early inhabitants practiced agriculture, but could an alternate food source create the conditions for an independent civilization to prosper?The Caral-Supe are not as famous as other pre-Columbian civilizations, as they disappeared long before the time of the conquistadors. Related archaeological sites were first discovered at the start of the 20th century. Extensive documentation of the civilization was only published from the 1990s onwards, led by Peruvian anthropologist Ruth Shady.Inhospitable Terrain, Plentiful SeasModel of the remains of Caral. Source: Museos de LimaPerus Pacific coastline is dominated by the Sechura desert, one of the driest in the world. Precipitation only falls during seasonal El Nio events. The region is tectonically active, with damage from earthquakes and landslides apparent in some surviving structures. Interspersed throughout the arid climate are over fifty intermittent rivers fed seasonally by snow melting in the Andes. These water sources form small pockets of arable land in an otherwise barren region.Early inhabitants at Aspero, a fishing village, relied on the Supe River for freshwater. Their diet consisted primarily of marine life from the Pacific. At the mouth of rivers such as this, communities of fishermen formed the first large organized societies on the American continent. The prosperity of fishing villages allowed subsequent inhabitants to move further inland, still trading with the seaside towns.Peruvian seas are among the most abundant sources of fish in the world. Michael Moseley, the author of Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization, argued that these rich waters allowed large, sedentary populations to develop refined social structures and architectural marvels. According to Mosely, these hallmarks of civilization arose before irrigation agriculture was implemented.Urban Engineering and Outside ContactRemains of the sacred City of Caral-Supe (Peru), by Hkan Svensson Xauxa, 2010. Source: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ParisCaral, often described as the capital city of the civilization, was located on the Supe River just 14 miles from the coast. It gives the civilization its name. Caral was home to an evidently peaceful society, as there were no border walls or weapons. The cityscape suggests a static, planned, and populated urban center. All settlements were situated on non-arable ground to preserve the scarce fertile land for farming. Six pyramids and two round sunken courtyards were the primary features, laid out in a carefully planned style.Residents lived in adobe and mud homes. These materials were also used extensively to construct monumental spaces such as pyramids and courtyards. The citys engineering marvels included earthquake-resistant buildings with foundations made of containers of loose stone to minimize shaking and damage. Subsurface ventilation ducts drew in air to maintain fires.Pyramid in Caral. Source: Inca Trail MachuThe two recessed circular courtyards were markets that hosted exchanges from a vast territory. Trade networks extended not only between the metropolis and the shore but also as far as Ecuador and the Amazon through overland and riverine routes. Green areas nearby were hunting grounds for deer, and fibrous plant materials could be sourced from wetlands. Coastal people traded seafood for agricultural products, tools, and raw materials.Caral contains six pyramids, the largest of which, known as the Piramide Major, is the oldest known pyramid in the western hemisphere. Constructed around 2600 BCE, it is contemporary with or slightly older than the Step Pyramid in Egypt, making it one of the oldest pyramids in the world.Jobs, Science, Culture & GovernmentHuaricanga, Fortazela Valley, Peru, c. 2500 BCE. Source: University Press of Colorado, DenverBoth skilled and unskilled work were essential to the growth of Caral. Masonry was applied to create mounds, terraces, and community spaces. Domestic buildings were also placed onto terraces upon hillsides. The scale of these structures suggests that a system of organized labor was present. Workers may have toiled under duress or been compensated with currency, potentially dried anchovies.Astronomy, medicine, and the selective breeding of plants were regularly practiced. Artisans produced jewelry, woven garments, and baskets, while engineers managed water resources and construction. Stone figurines and bone flutes point to a culture that valued artistic expression.Different settlements exercised relative autonomy and practiced separate religions. They were overseen by leaders of sayas, or halves, ruling equal portions of the civilization. The Huno was the central state figure who lived in the capital city and governed all Caral-Supes inhabitants. High-ranking individuals and families possessed luxury goods such as symbols made from exotic stone or the remains of rare animals. Social class division is evidenced by the design of living quarters and clusters of these high- and low-status residences.What Else Made Caral-Supe Different?Quipu, c. 1400-1532 CE. Source: Smithsonians National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D.C.Despite fitting the standard criteria for a civilization, the development of Caral was dissimilar to others. They never created ceramics and instead used gourds to transport and store liquids.No form of writing, as traditionally known, has been uncovered. Instead, knotted textile weaves served as a form of record-keeping. Plant fibers were manipulated to make quipu (or khipu), which disseminated information through color, cordage, and knot locations. The worlds oldest example of quipu was discovered inside a pyramid in Caral. This find may date to 4000 to 4500 BCE, solidifying quipu as one of humanitys earliest systematic methods of recording information.Caral diets were also unusual but were rooted in consistent staples. Unlike their contemporaries, Carals citizens did not grow grains in abundance. Maize was continually farmed from 6500 BCE, but did not become a significant nutritional source until 800 BCE. Instead, they roasted beans, peppers, avocados, and potatoes. Other cultivated foodstuffs included squash, guava, and domestic animals such as dogs and guinea pigs.Inhabitants of coastal villages such as Aspero chiefly consumed shellfish, seabirds, anchovies, and sardines. They frequently traded these products with some exceptions. Seaweed and marine mammals were prevalent near the ocean but not inland. Whales were also present, although their meat was likely scavenged from beached carcasses rather than hunted.Did This Civilization Have Unique Aquatic Origins?Selected finds from La Yerba III, 2018. Source: Journal of Archaeological Method and TheoryThe technologies that enabled the utilization of these marine resources were products of agriculture. Cotton and bast plants were instrumental in producing fibers for fishing lines, twines, and nets. Wood from fruit trees and reeds was used to create watercraft. While humans gathered these plants for millennia, their cultivation coincided with the formation of organized societies. The intensive agriculture of these crops enabled the large-scale manufacture of fishing equipment, which contributed to bountiful food, population increase, and a large urban community.Remnants of elevated gravity canals have been radiocarbon dated to at least 3500 BCE when Caral-Supe originated, and perhaps as early as 4700 BCE. Collective labor was likely used in their construction, reinforcing social and occupational stratification. This infrastructure is predated by minor irrigation in domestic garden plots, showcasing the prevalence of subsistence farming in early Andean societies.Aspero continued to serve as a fishing village within the Caral civilization and was the only significant populated area on the coast. Migrations inland took advantage of fertile soil to grow crops necessary for fishing. Settlements were largely self-sufficient, supplemented by these exchanges.Pescador de spero (Fisherman of Aspero) diorama. Source: Museos de LimaSouthern coast residents possessed similarly rich seawaters as those further north, yet lacked freshwater rivers and thus the potential for inland farming. These societies were smaller and less complex, evidenced by their relative absence in the archaeological record. Trade networks across the region, which bred economic and social hierarchies, also aided the transition to civilization in the north.Facing this evidence, one can safely conclude that intensive agriculture catalyzed the formation of Andean civilization. Locals with more arable land developed irrigation, leading to societal stratification, and trade with coastal regions facilitated the economy. The cultivation of plants enabled higher food yields, providing the impetus for large metropolitan areas to develop.While it appears unlikely that Andean culture developed solely thanks to marine resources, it is not a question of one or the other. The early marine diet provided by the abundant Pacific Ocean provided a consistent and rich food source that enabled a sedentary lifestyle and agriculture. The evidence suggests a symbiotic relationship where agricultural innovation supported marine exploitation, and vice versa.Caral-Supes Decline and Lasting LegacyMancco Ccapac I, Inca del Peru, by Marco Chillitupa Chvez, 1830-1850. Source: Denver Art MuseumCaral-Supe declined in 1800 BCE during a lengthy drought period. At the same time, people in more arable settings to the north and in the Andes adopted irrigation. These neighboring societies surmounted Caral, and its residents fled the region. Carals capital was only occupied twice more, in 1000 BCE and between 900 and 1440 CE. In both instances, settlers only lived on its outer edges. Caral was the first Andean civilization, followed by distinct cultures such as the Nazca and Inca. The next significant population to inhabit Peru, the Chavn, did not arise until 900 BCE.Sacred City of Caral-Supe (Peru), by Christopher Kleihege. Source: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ParisIn 2015, representatives from 124 countries in the International Union of Architects signed the Caral Letter in the capital city. This document highlighted the settlements unity with nature as an exemplar of sustainable development. Central planning and seismic-resistant structures were the principal points of interest. The architects emphasized its construction with hand tools to illustrate that incredible goals were achievable.

In the last days of July 1830, a series of repressive ordinances issued by King Charles X provoked widespread protests. Led by liberals and moderates, the demonstrations in Paris soon turned into a full-fledged revolution: the Second French Revolution. After three days of street fighting between the armed protestors and the police, Charles X abdicated the throne. He was succeeded by Louis-Philippe, the Duc dOrlans, supported by the middle-class moderates and constitutional monarchists. Known as the July Monarchy, Louis-Philippes reign marked the rise of the bourgeoisie but failed to bring stability to the country.The Historical Background: The Bourbon RestorationPolitical map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna, by Alexander Altenhof. Source: Wikimedia CommonsOn March 30, 1814, the forces of the anti-French coalitionAustria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britainreached the outskirts of Paris. On April 6, Napoleon Bonaparte, the Emperor of the French, abdicated and was sent into exile on the island of Elba off the west coast of Italy.By then, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, the president of Frances provisional government, had already begun negotiating with Louis XVIII, one of the brothers of Louis XVI, the king guillotined in 1793 during the French Revolution. Restored to the French throne, Louis XVIII granted the Charter of 1814.The document, known as la Charte octroye (the charter granted) to emphasize that it was granted by the monarch, established a constitutional monarchy after the English model. The new constitution introduced a bicameral parliamentary system, guaranteed civil liberties and religious toleration (although Catholicism was recognized as the state religion), and gave the king the power to appoint ministers, convene or dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, and sanction any laws passed in the two chambers.The Battle of Waterloo, by William Sadler, 1815. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe four European powersAustria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britainthat led the anti-Napoleon alliance supported the Bourbon Restoration in France, hoping it would restore stability to the country and prevent future revolutionary upheavals from threatening the new European order established at the Congress of Vienna. Organized to dismantle the vast Napoleonic empire, the meeting in Vienna aimed to secure a balance of power in the continent (the so-called Concert of Europe) by preserving territorial integrity and the principle of legitimacy. At the same time, the congress sought to limit the impact of the French Revolution across Europe.In March 1815, the stability of the newly established Bourbon rule was immediately threatened by Napoleons attempt to seize power after escaping from Elba. The so-called Hundred Days, however, ended with the former emperors final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and the return of Louis XVIII to France on July 8, 1815.The Rise of the UltrasKing Louis XVIII of France, by Franois Grard, 1814. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Htel Beauharnais, ParisIn the following decade, Louis XVIII sought to establish a moderate rule, trying to reconcile the democratic ideals of the 1789 Revolution with Frances first attempt at a constitutional monarchy. His efforts, however, were largely thwarted by the rise of the ultras (ultraroyalistes or ultra-royalists), the extreme right wing of the royalist movement, which supported the interests of the landowners and former migrs and aimed to eradicate the legacy of the French Revolution.First emerging in 1815, the ultras eventually gained control of the Chamber of Deputies in 1820, when a fanatic Bonapartist assassinated Charles-Ferdinand de Bourbon, the kings nephew, in a failed effort to end the Bourbon dynasty (Charles-Ferdinands wife had a son seven months after her husbands death). After Louis XVIII dismissed the ministry of the moderate lie Decazes and called for general elections, the ultras secured a majority in the Chamber, and one of their leaders, Joseph de Villle, was tasked with forming the new cabinet.Alarmed by the ultras victory, the Charbonnerie, a secret society inspired by the Italian Carboneria, planned an unsuccessful insurrection in 1822. Meanwhile, the ultras-controlled government began pursuing a more aggressive foreign policy. In 1820, a revolt in Spain had forced King Ferdinand VII to grant a constitution. To prevent the unrest from spreading across the continent, the European powers backed Frances intervention to restore Ferdinand VII to the throne.The successful military campaign in Spain consolidated the ultras power in France, and the 1824 elections saw the ultra-royalists secure their hold in the Chamber of Deputies. Then, in September of the same year, a leader of the ultras, Charles-Philippe, comte dArtois, succeeded Louis XVIII on the throne, becoming King Charles X. The ultras control over France seemed complete.Setting the Stage: The Reign of Charles XCoronation portrait of Charles X, by Franois Grard, 1825. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Museo del Prado, MadridAfter the 1789 storming of the Bastille, the comte dArtois was the first member of the French royal family to go into exile. He spent the following years travelling to Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England before organizing an unsuccessful royalist uprising in the Vende region in 1814. In the same year, he returned to France and quickly emerged as a leading figure in the ultras movement.Upon inheriting the throne as Charles X, Charles-Philippe set out to implement the reactionary policies supported by the ultras. Backed by the monarch, the Villle ministry compensated the migrs (aristocratic landowners who fled France after 1789) for the loss of their lands confiscated by the revolutionary government. To cover the costs of the compensation (about 1 billion francs), the cabinet arbitrarily lowered the interest rates of the government bonds, causing widespread discontent among the upper-middle-class bondholders.In the first years of his reign, Charles X also backed a campaign for Catholic revival to restore the role of the Roman Catholic Church, whose authority had been challenged in the previous decades by the Enlightenment movement and the Revolution. At the same time, the king rejected the constitutional monarchy model, seeking to reassert the principle of divine rightthe political doctrine that claims monarchs derive their authority directly from God.Joseph, comte de Villle, by Jean Sbastien Rouillard, before 1852. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs new laws tightened the censorship of the press, targeting liberal publishers, public discontent began to rise. In the face of spreading opposition, in 1827, Villle decided to call for general elections, hoping to strengthen the ultras hold on the Chamber. Despite holding off the official announcement until November 5 to prevent the opposition from organizing their campaign, the November 17 and 24 elections resulted in a defeat for Villle.With the assistance of the committee Aide-toi, le ciel taidera (God helps those who help themselves), led by Franois Guizot, the liberal candidates successfully managed to counteract the ministrys machinations to keep them off the ballot. Charles X responded to Villles defeat by appointing the more moderate vicomte de Martignac as the head of the cabinet.However, Martignacs compromise policies soon displeased the king, who dismissed and replaced him with the unpopular reactionary prince de Polignac.The July OrdinancesPortrait of Jules de Polignac, by Franois Grard, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Polignac cabinet, composed of several members of the most extreme factions of the ultras, caused further divisions in the already polarized political landscape. In Paris, the republican groups began to mobilize, and the liberal upper middle class rallied behind a new opposition newspaper, le National, sponsored by Jacques Lafitte, the governor of the Bank of France. The French bourgeoisie was especially dissatisfied with the governments efforts to defend the interests of the landed aristocracy and restore its social predominance.In March 1830, tensions between the minority and the government increased as Charles X gave a speech announcing his intention to limit the legislative powers of the Chamber of Deputies. On March 15, a committee of 221 opposition deputies presented a statement condemning the cabinets reactionary policies. After reminding the monarch that the participation of the country in the discussion of public affairs was defended as a right by the 1814 Charter, the deputies argued:An unwarranted mistrust of the feelings and thoughts of France is today the fundamental attitude of the Administration. Your people are distressed by this because it is an affront to them; they are worried by it because it is a threat to their liberties.Charles X responded to the address by dissolving the Chamber and calling for a general election. While the king and the ultras hoped that the conquest of Algiers in North Africa by the French expeditionary forces might shape the outcome of the election in their favor, the opposition secured 274 seats, almost 100 more than the ministry.Seizure of the Presses of the Le National, lithography by Victor Adam. Source: Wikimedia CommonsDespite the unfavorable outcome of the election, Charles did not replace Polignac with a more moderate statesman. On July 26, 1830, the Moniteur universel, the official newspaper of the French government, published a report announcing a series of repressive measures. Known as the July Ordinances, these decrees dissolved the newly elected Chamber of Deputies, introduced a rigorous censorship of the press, called for new elections, and restricted the right to vote to favor the interests of the landed aristocracy.The July Days: Les Trois GlorieusesLiberty Leading the People, by Eugne Delacroix, 1830. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Louvre Museum, ParisAmong the first to react to the unpopular July Ordinances were the liberal and moderate journalists. From the pages of le National, Adolphe Thiers accused the king and the ministry of planning a coup dtat and protested the decision to dismiss the lawfully elected Chamber. Failing to realize the brewing discontent following the July 26 measures had laid the groundwork for violent protest, Charles X left Paris without making any contingency plans.On July 27, when the police intervened to prevent the staff of le National, le Globe, and le Temps (all leading opposition newspapers) from distributing copies of their morning editions, the first uprisings broke out in the French capital.On the night between July 27 and 28, the protests turned into a full-fledged revolution, with people building barricades in the streets to fight the 12,000 soldiers led by the unpopular Marshal Marmont. The violent confrontation between armed revolutionaries and soldiers went on for three days, known in France as les Trois Glorieuses, or July Days. Famously depicted by French artist Eugne Delacroix in his painting Liberty Leading the People, the Second French Revolution is also featured in Victor Hugos novel Les Misrables, set in the years leading to the July Days.On July 29, Marmont sent an urgent missive to Charles X to urge him to act: This is no longer a riot, this is a revolution. It is urgent that Your Majesty decide on the means of pacification. The honor of his crown can still be saved; tomorrow perhaps it will be too late. The Marshals sense of urgency was not without cause. By July 29, many soldiers had already begun to fraternize with the revolutionaries. Marmont, left with only a fraction of his forces, was forced to retreat. Soon afterward, the insurgents broke into the Bourbon Palace.The Great Nutcracker of July 25th, or the Impotent Horse-jaw. Caricature depicting Charles X as he tries to break with his teeth a billiard ball symbolizing the 1814 Charter, by A.B. Maurice and F.T. Cooper, 1904. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress, Washington DCCharles X agreed to dismiss Polignac only on July 30, but it was too little, too late. From their stronghold at the Htel de Ville, the republicans created a municipal commission, while the liberal faction, headed by Adolphe Thiers, called for Louis-Philippe, duc dOrlans, to replace Charles X as king. Initially reluctant, Louis-Philippe eventually accepted Thiers offer and met with the republicans at the Htel de Ville, winning the support of General Lafayette, a leading figure in the First French Revolution. The July Days were over.King Charles X abdicated on August 2. On August 9, 1830, the parliament declared Louis-Philippe king of the French by the grace of God and the will of the nation.The Aftermath of the Second French Revolution: The July MonarchyKing Louis-Philippe I Taking the Oath to Keep the Charter of 1830 on 9 August 1830, by Eugne Devria, 1831. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse national du Chteau de Versailles, VersaillesLouis-Philippes reign, known as the July Monarchy, marked a shift in the French social landscape, with the wealthy bourgeoisie replacing the landed aristocracy as the countrys most influential social force. Indeed, the Second French Revolution led to a triumph of the liberal bourgeoisie, and Louis-Philippes rule mainly rested on the support of liberal bankers and industrialists.Meanwhile, the revised 1830 Charter introduced a more defined constitutional monarchy in France. The new document rejected the principle of divine right, abolished censorship of the press, and extended suffrage to include all males who paid 200 francs in direct taxes. The Charter also restored the tricolor as the national flag and no longer referred to Catholicism as the state religion; instead, it defined it as the faith of the majority of the French.Proclamation of the Republic on February 24, 1848, by Jean-Paul Laurens, c. 1902. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Muse des Beaux-Arts de la ville de Paris, ParisDespite the widespread support of the liberal bourgeoisie, Louis-Philippe, nicknamed the Citizen King, had to navigate a complex political landscape during his reign. Opposed by the ultras on the right and republicans and socialists on the left, the monarch survived several assassination attempts, including the 1835 plot orchestrated by Giuseppe Maria Fieschi.Faced with the rapid changes brought by industrialization and urbanization, the July Monarchys attempt to pursue a juste milieu (middle way) ultimately failed. As social unrest and the dissatisfaction of the working class with the status quo grew in the late 1840s, Louis-Philippe abdicated his throne on February 24, 1848, following the February Revolution, an uprising born out of the revolutionary movement sweeping across Europe in 1848. The July Monarchy was replaced with the Second Republic.

The spice trade is credited with bringing spices such as cinnamon, cloves, ginger, and pepper to many parts of the world. The trade which started several millennia ago flourished due to high demand for spices, and is considered to be one of the main catalysts of globalization as we know it today.Initially, spices were mainly used for culinary purposes. With time, however, their use cases evolved to making perfume, preserving meat, and treating ailments.How the Spice Trade BeganMap of the Spice Islands, by William Blaeu, 1630, Source: The Old Map CompanyDemand for spices rose sharply about two thousand years ago when Arab traders introduced them to many parts of the world. Their spice trading activities inadvertently created outsized demand for them due to a burgeoning market. To keep competitors at bay, the traders used tricks such as misdirection and mythical tales to discourage Western nations from joining in due to the huge profits involved. For many years the ploy worked and the Romans and Greeks kept away from the trade.However, the Arab traders couldnt keep the secret for long. As demand for spices grew, especially during the Roman Empire era and into the Middle Ages, expeditions were sent out in search of the source of spices.How the Spice Trade Was Carried OutA seventeenth-century French depiction of the Spice Islands, Indonesia, c. 17th century. Source: cilubintang.comInitially, Arab traders transported spices over land using camel caravans to foreign lands. One of the key routes used for the trade was the Silk Road which connected the Mediterranean, Asia, North Africa, and the European continents.Demand for spices in Europe rose sharply following the establishment of Alexandria, Egypt as a major trading center in the Roman Empire. This was during the first century BC. For many years, the empire controlled the spice trade in the region. Later on in the 13th century, Venice became the central trading hub for spices heading to western and northern Europe. The city grew wealthy by charging high taxes on spices. Without direct access to Middle Eastern sources, European traders had no option but to pay the high tariffs. Eventually, even wealthy European elites struggled to afford the spices.How the Europeans Entered the Spice TradeFirst Landing of Christopher Columbus in America, by Discoro Tefilo Puebla Tolin, 1862Because of the exorbitant prices charged by the Romans, rich European elites eventually resolved to do something about the situation by funding their own spice-seeking expeditions. And so, in the 1400s, when sailing technologies had improved to the point where long-distance sailing was feasible, groups of ships were sent out in search of spice-producing areas.First out of the blocks was Christopher Columbus who in the search for a faster path to India, one of the biggest sources of spices at the time, landed in the Americas instead. The trip was sponsored by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain.Depiction of Christopher Columbus ship the Santa MariaWhile he failed to reach India, he brought back chili peppers, the local variant of spicy flavoring. He is acknowledged for introducing the new version of peppers to Europe. Also looking for spices, Vasco da Gama became the first European to find a sea route that connected Europe to Asia. He was able to achieve the feat by going around the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and sailing across the Indian Ocean to Calicut, India. The success of his expedition marked the beginning of Portuguese conquest missions in the region.How the Spice Trade Impacted International TradeCalicut, India, from Civitates Orbis Terrarium, 1572, Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter the Portuguese arrival, expeditions by the Dutch, Spanish, and the British soon followed. Conflicting interests between the groups soon culminated in a cluster of battlefronts and bloody altercations over the control of the spice trade. One major conflict which broke out between England, Spain, Holland and Portugal over the Indonesian Spice Islands continued for over a century.At some point in the 18th century, merchants from the United States made a foray into the spice business. Soon, hundreds of American ships were involved in the trade.With time, however, spices became more commonplace due to rising supply, and their worth began to drop. The bump in supplies was due to new advanced farming methods and technologies. Nevertheless, the trade routes that had been established in the search for spice-producing zones were used for other purposes in subsequent years. Today, the routes are used to transport both people and goods around the world.

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