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By the time Alexander the Great died in the summer of 323 BCE Olympias had over three decades of experience at the forefront of Macedonian politics, first as a wife and then as a mother of kings. She was one of the first ancient Greek women to have a significant impact on politics, both during the lives of her husband and son and following Alexanders death. Between 323-317 BCE she became a central figure in the early phases of the decades-long War of Successors.Olympias: Vengeful Queen or Ruthless Politician?Olympias Medallion, Roman, c. 3rd century CE. Source: Walters Art MuseumFor decades Olympias had been at the heart of the court of her husband, Philip II of Macedon. A negative tradition portrayed her as a vengeful murderess. Her origins on the edge of the Greek world in Epirus, north western Greece, and a fondness for snakes gave her an exotic, almost demonic reputation. However, Olympias was little different than any other member of a ruthless court which frequently resorted to assassination and execution. Rather than jealous and vengeful, Olympias actions were probably rationally motivated by the need to defend her sons position as heir to the throne and later as king.The same pattern continued after Alexanders death and became attached to his infant son Alexander IV, who was made joint king with Philip III Arrhidaeus, another son of Philip II who was previously judged incapable of ruling due to an unknown incapacity. Olympias fought for the rights of her grandson and allied with anyone willing to protect them.Rivalry With AntipaterDeath of Alexander the Great, by Nicola de Laurentiis, c. 1783-1832. Source: MutualArtOlympias had withdrawn from Macedon during Alexanders reign, partly due to tensions with Antipater, Alexanders regent. The rivalry with Antipater reached such heights that she blamed him and his family for Alexanders death. The timing of Alexanders death had been fortunate for Antipater, who had been summoned by the king and possibly feared for his life. Olympias may have been voicing her belief in Antipaters guilt, sincerely believing it, soon after her sons death.Olympias rivalry with Antipater certainly continued after Alexanders death. Her initial involvement in the War of Successors was to try to prevent an alliance between Antipater and Perdiccas, regent and guardian of the kings, by attempting to arrange the marriage of her daughter, Cleopatra, to Perdiccas. This plan fell through and Perdiccas soon died on campaign in Egypt. But then the situation changed again.Antipater died of natural causes in 319 BCE. Instead of passing control of Macedon and the two kings to his son Cassander, Antipater appointed a veteran officer, Polyphercon, as his successor. The removal of an old antagonist was probably welcome, especially as Polyphercon reached out to Olympias and asked her to return to Macedon and care for Alexander IV. However, Cassander was unwilling to accept being passed over and soon rebelled. With Macedon itself favoring Polyphercon and the kings, according to Diodorus Siculus, Cassander sought allies elsewhere and built a presence in Greece. Cassander, the son of an old rival and now the enemy of the official guardian of Alexander IV, grew into the major threat to Olympias and Alexander the Greats family.Marching to WarEumenos and Roxana, by Alessandro Varotari, c. 1630s. Source: Hermitage MuseumIt seems Olympias, wisely, did not trust any of the powerful generals. Diodorus reports that she contacted the relative outsider among the generals, the Greek Eumenes, seeking his continued support of the isolated royal family and saying she placed little trust in anyone. Taking Eumenes advice, Olympias refused Polyphercons offer and stayed in Epirus to see how events unfolded. She did, however, start to take a more active role, trying, unsuccessfully, to win over the Athenians from Cassander.When Cassander gained a foothold in Greece, Polyphercon was forced to march south. Not only were his campaigns unsuccessful, but in his absence, the situation in Macedon shifted again. When Olympias decided to return to Macedon, Adea Eurydice, a roughly 20-year-old granddaughter of Philip II and the wife of Philip III Arrhidaeus, took control and allied with Cassander. Adea had reason to fear Olympias. In the past, Olympias had been ruthless with potential threats and was rumored to have caused Arrhidaeus incapacity through poison, though there is no supporting evidence for the accusation.Coin showing Hercules (obverse) and lion (reverse), issued under Cassander, c. 317-306 BCE. Source: British MuseumOlympias could not allow Adea and Cassander to control Macedon and the kings. Polyphercon and Aeacides of Epirus supplied an army, which Olympias symbolically led. Adea gathered her own force and marched to the border with Epirus for what has been called the first war between women. Such was Olympias prestige that the Macedonians with Adea refused to fight and defected. Adea and Arrhidaeus were soon captured.There are different ways to interpret what happened next. Negative sources, such as Justin, depict a vengeful Olympias first starving and then executing Adea and Arrhidaeus and massacring the supporters and family of Cassander. This cruelty lost her the support of the Macedonians, setting up her fall. However, removing the negative judgement from the events allows us to see a different picture.Adea and Arrhidaeus were indeed executed, but the story that she imprisoned and walled them up can be read either as torture or hesitation. Their eventual executions were handled in a traditional manner, which respected their royal status. A brother of Cassander was killed and the tomb of another desecrated. Since Olympias considered the family responsible for the death of Alexander, this may have been punishment for their apparent treason. A few dozen supporters of Cassander were killed, but it was not a wholesale purge. When she returned to Macedon, Olympias was ruthless, but no more so than any other Macedonian political figure during this violent age. There is no sign of support being withdrawn from her in the remaining months of her life.Cassander ReactsImage of Olympias on a silver bowl, Romano-British, c. 4th century CE. Source: British MuseumOlympiass return to Macedon in 317 BCE brought her to the height of her political influence. But by the middle of 316 BCE, she was dead.Hearing the news that Olympias had returned to Macedon while campaigning in Greece, Cassander quickly moved north. Bypassing potential opposition from Polyphercons allies, he was in Macedon before any real defense could be organized. Cassander and his commanders held off Olympias defenders and forced her and the royal family to retreat to the city of Pydna. Cassander had moved too quickly and outmanoeuvred Olympias. Both he and his commanders were more capable than Polyphercon and Aeacides while Olympiass other ally, Eumenes, was far away. The events of 317-316 BCE look more like a military victory for Cassander than support for Olympias evaporating.Olympias held on in Pydna for several months, enduring a terrible siege. Forces loyal to Olympias and the royal family fought on with little success. Only when the war looked lost did people in Macedon seek terms with Cassander. Sometime in the spring of 316 BCE, with her remaining soldiers starving, Olympias was forced to surrender. Cassander promised to keep her safe, but this promise was soon forgotten.Final ActCassander and Olympias, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1799. Source: Brests Museum of Fine ArtsOlympias and the royal family were now in Cassanders hands, but she met her end with dignity and defiance. Cassander moved cautiously against the still popular Olympias. He convinced the families of some of Olympias victims to bring her to trial, refusing to let her speak or make any defense. Next, Cassander offered to let her escape to Athens, but Olympias refused. Instead, she wanted to speak to the Macedonians. Olympias seems convinced that she still retained support. Cassander refused to let her speak.Less subtle methods were now applied before Olympias could rally support. Two hundred soldiers were dispatched with orders to kill Olympias, but when they confronted her, they could not do it. In the end, only the families of her victims were willing to come forward. A group of them went to the house where she was held. Olympias had already faced down one group of assassins, but there was no escaping her fate this time. While few details are recorded, even the largely negative sources report that the bravery and dignity with which she met death was worthy of the mother of Alexander the Great and the mythical hero Achilles from whom her family claimed descent.Olympias was right to fear Cassander. Having killed Alexander the Greats mother, he went on to murder his wife and son, extinguishing the Argead dynasty. In the end, this suited all the potential successors. With the nominal kings out of the way, the remaining powerful generals declared themselves kings of parts of Alexanders empire, creating the framework for the Hellenistic Age.Bibliography:Carney, E. (2006) Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. Routledge: New York.Jouanno, C (1995). Alexandre et Olympias: de lhistoire au mythe, Bulletin de lAssociation Guillaume Bud, 1995.3pp. 211-230.

In the Arthurian legends, Mordred is by far the most famous son of King Arthur to modern audiences. He was the figure who instigated a civil war against Arthur, leading to the downfall of Camelot. However, in the earliest traces of the Arthurian legends, Mordred was not Arthurs son but rather his nephew. Early tradition does speak of several sons of the king, sons who are much more obscure today than Mordred. This article will explore what we know about King Arthurs sons from the surviving Welsh traditional sources.King Arthurs Son AmharView from Garway Hill, the possible burial site of Amhar, son of King Arthur. Source: GeographThe earliest reference to Arthur having a son comes from the Mirabilia, a record attached to the 9th-century Historia Brittonum and probably dating from about the same time. One of the wonders of Britain is described as the tomb of a figure called Amr, the son of Arthur. The passage goes on to explain that Arthur himself slew Amr and buried him, although it does not explain why.Amr appears in Geraint and Enid, a Welsh tale from the 12th century, where his name is spelled Amhar. While still described as the son of King Arthur, he is also presented as one of Arthurs chamberlains. Nothing more is said about him.There is another record in which Amhar might be mentioned. This is The Stanzas of the Graves, a long poem about the graves of numerous medieval figures. Here, a certain Meigen is described as fleeing from Amhars host. Although the passage does not confirm his parentage, this name was very uncommon, so this may well be a reference to Amhar, son of King Arthur.LlacheuView of Llandrinio Church, Powys, the alleged resting place of Llacheu, son of King Arthur. Source: GeographProbably the most famous of King Arthurs sons is a figure named Llacheu. He first appears in Pa Gur, a Welsh poem that may date back to c. 900, almost as early as the Historia Brittonum. Like with Amhar, Llacheu is mentioned in association with his death. He is also mentioned by several Welsh poets in later centuries, also usually in connection with his death. For example, a court poet of the 13th century named Bleddyn Fardd mentioned him. He referred to the fact that he died in blue-enameled arms below Llech Ysgar, a location in Powys. It appears that there was a strong tradition about the tragedy of Llacheus death, of which we only have glimpses now.Llacheu is described as being a youth when he died, which is likely what contributed to his death being viewed as a particularly memorable tragedy. It may also be that the circumstances surrounding his death were especially memorable.Pa Gur, a poem describing dialogue between King Arthur and a gatekeeper, Black Book of Carmarthen, MS Peniarth 1, fol. 47r., c. 1225-1275 CE. Source: National Library of WalesPa Gur heavily implies that he died at the same time as Cai, one of Arthurs closest allies. Interestingly, the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen explains that Cai was killed by one of the figures who appears as an ally of Arthur in that tale. Arthur, in response, is said to have killed Cais murderer Cai. The idea of one of Arthurs allies turning against him and killing Arthurs men strongly hints at the Battle of Camlann. The rebellion which culminated in that battle had a strong presence in medieval Welsh tradition and was viewed as a great tragedy. Thus, the evidence from Culhwch and Olwen strongly suggests that Cai died at the Battle of Camlann.Since Pa Gur implies that Llacheu died at the same time as Cai, this suggests that Llacheu, too, died in that same conflict. Interestingly, two medieval manuscripts explicitly say that Llacheu died at Llongborth. The Battle of Llongborth appears in a Welsh poem dating to perhaps the 10th century. Based on the information in that poem, some researchers have identified this battle as the prelude to Camlann, independently of the information regarding Llacheu.GwydreCerrig Meibion Arthur, or the Stones of the Sons of Arthur, marking the traditional grave of Gwydre, son of King Arthur. Source: West Coast PathAnother one of King Arthurs sons who appears in Welsh tradition is Gwydre. He appears in just a single source, Culhwch and Olwen. This may date to about the year 1100. It tells the story of Arthur and his men engaging in a series of adventures, the most notable of which is a hunt for a monstrous boar. In one of the engagements against the boar, Arthurs son, Gwydre, is killed. This is the one and only appearance of this character in the Arthurian legends. It is possible that Gwydre is the source for Thomas Malorys character of Borre, also called Bohart, in Le Morte dArthur.The name Gwydre, in the form Gwydr, is also used for a 10th-century figure, the father of Gwaithfoed of Powys. However, the name of this figure appears in other records as Gwrhydyr, suggesting that this could be another form of the name of King Arthurs son. Interestingly, there was a certain Gwrhityr mentioned in the Book of Llandaff as a member of the medieval dynasty of southeast Wales. He was the son of either Athrwys ap Meurig or Morgan ap Athrwys.DuranThe Death of Arthur, by John Mulcaster Carrick, 1862. Source: Wikipedia CommonsAnother son of King Arthur who only appears in a single source is Duran. He is mentioned in a 15th-century poem found in a document known as Mostyn MS 131. This document presents Arthur as asking a character named Sandde Bryd Angel to drive a crow off the face of his son Duran. The implication is that Duran is dead, having recently been killed, and that crows are trying to feed on his body.No further information is given, but this is generally understood to be a reference to the Battle of Camlann. The reason is that other Welsh texts, such as Culhwch and Olwen, associate Sandde with that battle. Therefore, the fact that Sandde is depicted as present at the battle at which Duran was slain suggests that it, too, may be the Battle of Camlann. If so, it would mean that two sons of Arthur, Llacheu and Duran, both died at about the same time.Morgan the BlackRuins of Margam Abbey, supposedly named after Morgan ap Athrwys and his burial place. Source: GeographArthur is presented as having a variety of sons in non-Welsh sources. However, there is one in particular who is worthy of attention because he might also be identifiable in Welsh sources, albeit not explicitly as a son of King Arthur. This is Morgan the Black. He is mentioned in Le Petit Bruit, an account of the history of Britain written in 1309. This account gives King Arthur three sons, Adeluf III, Morgan the Black, and Patrick the Red. The second son, Morgan, is particularly noteworthy, because it is possible that he appears in Welsh sources.Le Petit Bruit tells us that Morgan lived in South Wales and became the king of Wales after Arthurs death. Interestingly, this sounds very much like the historical Morgan ap Athrwys. He was a king of southeast Wales in the early medieval period. His father, Athrwys, is often presented as a candidate for the historical King Arthur. Or, at least, he is viewed as someone who may have contributed to the Arthurian legends.Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei Chwaer, The Red Book of Hergest, Jesus College MA 111, fol. 141r, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian LibrariesWith that in mind, it is likely that Morgan the Black is based on the historical King Morgan ap Athrwys. There is also some evidence of this in Welsh poetry. In the poem Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei Chwaer, dating to before the 14th century, a certain Morgan Mawr is mentioned. This translates to Morgan the Great. He is described as the son of a certain Sadyrnin. There is no known Morgan ap Sadyrnin to be found in any of the medieval Welsh genealogies. Nonetheless, this Morgan is presented as one of the most prominent kings of the Britons in the latter part of the 6th century.We would certainly expect that someone remembered as the son of King Arthur would have been a prominent figure. As it happens, the only Morgan in the medieval period associated with a Sadyrnin is Morgan ap Athrwys. One prominent abbot in his time, with whom Morgan is associated in the Book of Llandaff, is Saturnus. The name Sadyrnin appears to be an alternative form of this. Thus, Morgan ap Athrwys is the most likely candidate for the Morgan remembered as Morgan the Great in Welsh tradition.The Sons of King ArthurHistoria Brittonum with the earliest reference to one of Arthurs sons, MS Harley 3859, fol. 1, c. 1100-1130. Source: British LibraryIn summary, Welsh tradition assigns Arthur at least four sons: Amhar, Llacheu, Gwydre, and Duran. The first of these is said to have been killed by Arthur himself, although the reason for this is never given. The second and fourth both appear to have died at about the time of the Battle of Camlann. Gwydre, for his part, appears in just one source. There, he is shown to have died while fighting a monstrous boar. Llacheu was apparently the most prominent, receiving quite a few mentions within Welsh tradition.Outside of Welsh tradition, Morgan the Black is a particularly notable son. He was very likely based on Morgan ap Athrwys, his father Athrwys being a candidate for the historical King Arthur. This Morgan is likely identifiable with Morgan Mawr ap Sadyrnin, a figure remembered as one of the most prominent kings of the Britons in the late 6th century. This fits in well with the tradition that he was a son of the powerful King Arthur.

People often have several misconceptions about medieval food. There seems to be a notion that peasants survived on crusts of stale bread and watered-down ale, while every night the lord of the manor and the kings and emperors around the globe were feasting on rich, expensive foods. While there is a certain element of truth to this, it is nevertheless important to dive into the reality behind the stereotypes that we have surrounding medieval food. Read on to discover all there is to know about what people ate during the Middle Ages.Regional and Local CuisinesSalmon, pea pottage, and bread. Source: Modern History TV / YoutubeFor the purposes of this article, we will solely focus on medieval Europe. While Eurocentric, people generally associate this term with the European Medieval Period, and more commonly, the High Middle Ages, anywhere from the 12th century to the 15th century. However, we will look at the Medieval Period as a whole, and use examples from different regions in Europe.Like today, the cuisine eaten in northern Europe varied hugely from that in southern Europe, due to the resources that were available. Of course, trade played a huge role in the medieval diet, and once the spice trade was opened up from places such as China and India via the Silk Roads (and later, the Americas and the Spice Wars which dominated the Early Modern world) it helped to influence medieval cuisines regardless of location in Europe.Map of the Silk Roads. Source: UNESCOWhat is more interesting to note is that the world was much smaller in the Middle Ages. Not geographically, but metaphoricallyvillages, towns, and small communities were much more commonplace (particularly in the British Isles), and many medieval peasants would live their whole lives in a 20-mile radius. This meant that those who lived inland would have their diets based on the crops that they could grow, while those near the coast had a diet that was heavily reliant on seafood, such as fish and shellfish.To this day, this is still felt in the cuisines of certain townstake Whitby, on the North Yorkshire coast for example; often regarded as the best place in Britain to get fish and chipsWhitby has been a fishing village for hundreds of years. But go further inland to places such as Lancashire, beef stew, known as Lancashire Hotpot, has been a regional dish for centuries. Small, localized communities with little interaction with other towns, parishes, and cities made the most of their local resources.Food as a Class Divider: Peasants vs the NobilityA banquet given by Charles V of France in 1378, by Jean Foucet, c. 1455-60. Source: BnFOf course, it would be unwise to presume that peasants in the Middle Ages ate the same foods as the nobility. The peasants diet largely relied on foods that they could grow, cultivate, harvest, or nurture themselves. These foods typically involved grains such as wheatbaked into bread in Northern Europe and transformed into foods like pasta in Southern Europe.In addition, peasants typically tried to keep small animals such as chickens, which could provide them with a multitude of thingseggs, for cooking with, and when it came to slaughtering them, meat for consumption in dishes like stews or roasts. The feathers could be used in bedding.For the nobility, it typically didnt matter if foodstuffs were local or not. Famously, King Henry I of England died after consuming a surfeit of lampreys in 1135, which would have likely had to come from the coastal regions of the UK.Moreover, the high nobility were more exposed to rich foodstuffs and foreign foods than peasants werethey could also keep their own animals for slaughtering purposesincluding cows, sheep, chickens, and more. Much more meat was consumed by the nobility when compared to the peasants, and as a result, gout became known as the disease of kings.While one bad harvest could kill off a peasant family or community, the nobility managed to survive. Even during the famine of 1315-17 during the reign of King Edward II, members of the court survived, and Edward would go on to rule for another ten years, while many peasants perished due to crop failures.Meat and Fish: A Rich Mans Food?John, Duke of Berry, enjoys a grand meal, found in Les Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, c. 1410. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAs mentioned earlier, the nobility ate much more meat than their peasant counterparts, partly because they could afford to have such luxuries.Take an average peasant familyif they were lucky, they might have a cow. This cow would be used for milk, which could be used in cooking, for nursing children, and even for sellingbut they could seldom afford to kill a healthy cow before it eventually died of old age. Once this cow died, the peasants could then salvage whatever meat they could from it.On the other hand, if a king wanted roast beef for dinner, a cow could be slaughtered at any given point and roasted in the courts huge kitchens by a dedicated team of cooks and chefs, meaning that cost and longevity were not an issue for those in the very highest echelons of society.Fish, for peasants who lived near to the coast, was often seen as a staple, and much more readily available than meat. A good days fishing could provide a peasant family with enough food to see them through a month, especially if they used different preservation methods such as smoking or drying the fish to make it last for longer.For the nobility, fish could also be seen as a luxuryespecially for those courts based in inland cities such as Paris and Milan, where seafood had to be specially imported. It was seen as a sign of how wealthy and powerful the nobility in these courts were if they could provide seafood for their guests while they were miles from the coastline.Feasting and Fasting: Religions Impact on the Medieval DietNuns Dining in Silence, found in The Life of Blessed Saint Humility, by Pietro Lorenzetti, 1341. Source: WGAOf course, the Middle Ages was a time of high religious fervor in Europe, and many days of the year were dedicated to different saints, where feasts were often put on.Some of the most famous medieval feast days included Midsummer Day (celebrated on June 24th, which celebrated John the Baptist), the Transfiguration of Jesus (August 6th), and of course, Christmas Day (December 25th).The time of year that the feast was celebrated accounted for the food that would be on offerthose feasts in winter would rely heavily on meats such as beef as many freshwater lakes or rivers could have frozen over, or been too cold to catch fish. In addition, winter vegetables such as carrots and turnips would have been served.For the summer feasts (and especially Easter), lighter meats such as lamb would have been served. In the medieval calendar, Easter was the biggest celebration by far, celebrating Jesus Christs resurrection, and even peasants would celebrate. The lambing season falls around Easter, so this wasand still isthe most consumed meat for Easter celebrations.On the other hand, there were many instances of fasting, none more famous than Lentthe period of 40 days which represents how long Christ went without food in the Bible when being tempted by Satan in the desert. While peasants could seldom afford to give up any food, it was still nonetheless observed, with many going without meat for the duration of Lent.Medieval Cooking MethodsA baker with his assistant, c. 1500. Source: Wikimedia CommonsUnsurprisingly, there were very few rules and regulations around the safety and hygiene involved in food handling in the Middle Ages.Food was eaten as a necessity, and food poisoning could kill people much easier in the Middle Ages than it can now, so it was a big risk almost every time a meal was eaten.Many of the cooking methods that we still use today were used in the Middle Ages, albeit with less technology due to what was available to them. Perhaps the first method that comes to mind when visualizing medieval cooking is spit roasting.Popular throughout Europe, most meats at the time were spit roastedfrom huge cattle in the kitchens of palaces and keeps, to humble chickens in the kitchens or fires of inns. Spit roasting large animals usually required two to four kitchen boys, who would rotate the meat manually so that it cooked evenly over the flames. This was a grueling job, especially during sweltering summers.Another popular medieval cooking method was boiling. The meat was sometimes boiled alongside vegetables in dishes such as stews, which were deemed as hearty, warming meals, largely reserved for peasants rather than the nobility.During the Middle Ages, ovens also came into playbut these were not like the commercial ovens we know today. Made out of brick and clay, these huge ovens were reserved for the finest kitchens, where loaves of bread or lots of cakes could be freshly made on a daily basis.Medieval Food: In ConclusionA 14th-century butcher shop, c. 1350. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFood in the Middle Ages was not too dissimilar to the food we see today. Regional favorites are still very much prevalent, such as coastal towns offering an array of seafood, and with the advent of the Early Modern Period and the spice trade industry boom, tastes changed.Food became more of a culinary experience from the Tudor Period onward, with huge banquets being viewed as something to make a show of, particularly during the reign of kings such as King Henry VIII who was known for his extravagant feasts.In the Middle Ages, food was a necessity, and thus very little showiness was given to itof course, banquets were reason enough for any noble to show off to their contemporaries, but as a general rule, food was eaten to survive, and the types of food were very demonstrative of local cuisine.

Portrait of King James I of England. Source: The Royal Household, LondonWe know King James I of England primarily through his name being attached to the King James Version of the Holy Bible, which was printed in 1611. Before he was James I of England, he was James VI of Scotland, enthroned there in 1567. He was a Protestant King, but also believed in the divine right of kings to rule, which often brought him into conflict with his Scottish subjects.The Scottish Reformation: Key AccomplishmentsOpponents of King Charles I Gathered at Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh, by William Allen, 1830s. Source: histoclo.comBy 1567 the Scottish Reformation had succeeded in taking over the churches in Scotland, pushing out the Roman Catholic Church and obtaining all its property. The Church of Scotland was also legally free from civil influence, and had a more localized organization, able to appoint its own leaders and pastors in local districts called presbyteries. Most of the trappings of Roman Catholicism were cast out, and the Church of Scotland had a heavy Calvinistic influence.The Church of England was different. While it too had separated from the Roman Catholic Church under Henry VIII, much of its structure was still Catholic in nature, with the crown having the authority to appoint bishops and handle church matters.What Did King James Do?James VI of Scotland and James I of England, by Jacob Jacobsz De Wet II, 1684 1686 CE. Source: The Royal Collection TrustJames VI was technically crowned King of Scotland when he was only 13 months old, after his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate. He did not fully come into his full power until 1583 when he was sixteen years old. He extensively believed in the divine right of kings, where he was given full power by God to rule, and pushed the Scottish Parliament to pass the Black Acts in 1584. The Black Acts were a series of laws which gave James VI power over the Church of Scotland similar to that which the English throne had over the Church of England.Presbyteries, were done away with and bishops directly appointed by the king were placed in charge. James VI also prevented the General Assembly the meeting of the heads of the Church of Scotland- from meeting until he could control its process and implement practices closer to the Church of England under the Five Articles of Perth.The Five Articles of PerthKing James I of England and VI of Scotland, by Miss Woodin, after Laurence Johnson. Source: National Portrait GalleryThe Five Articles of Perth were James VIs attempt to impose some structures and practices of the Church of England onto the Church of Scotland. They included kneeling during communion, private baptism, private communion for those who were sick, children catechized and blessed by a bishop, and celebrating certain religious holidays like Christmas and Easter.Many of the objections to the Five Articles of Perth and similar measures were that it made the church appear more Catholic. Many of the Scottish reformers had rejected, sometimes violently, the Roman Catholic Church, and had gone so far as to tear out all the decorations and discard all the ceremonial tools Catholic Churches used. Sunday was considered the only Holy day, and the rejection of Roman Catholicism was so pervasive that even holidays celebrated by Protestants today, Christmas and Easter, were discarded by Scottish protestants.King James I of England and VI of Scotland by Unknown artist, 1580. Source: National Portrait GalleryWhen the Articles were passed, King James wrote a letter to the leadership, stating that:The sword is now putt into your hands; goe on therefore to use it; and let it roust noe longer till ye have perfited the service trusted to you, or otherwise we must use it both against you and them. If anie or all of you be faint- hearted we are able enough (thanks to God) to put others in your places who both can and will make things possible which ye think so difficult.As well as:But as Papistrie is ane disease in the minds, so is Puritaisme in the braine. So the onlie remedie and antidote against it will be a grave, settled, uniforme, and well-ordered church, obedient to God and their King, Over the next few decades following King James VIs push against the Scottish Protestants would be a large back-and-forth struggle between the Church of Scotland and its King, which also held the throne of England.

Medieval castles in Japan originated during the Sengoku period (14671603), a time of relentless civil war when regional warlords, or daimy, fortified strategic sites to defend territory and assert power. Unlike European castles, these structures evolved into complex hubs of administration, military strategy, and symbolic authority. Japans broader history, from unification under Tokugawa Ieyasu to centuries of relative peace, left behind a landscape rich in shrines, battlegrounds, and preserved strongholds. Today, a small number of authentic medieval castles remain, offering rare glimpses into Japans feudal past. These ten are among the most historically intact and culturally significant examples still standing.1. Himeji Castle, Hygo PrefectureHimeji Castle, Hygo Prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched on a hill in Hygo Prefecture, Himeji Castle, also known as Shirasagi-j or White Heron Castle, is Japans most iconic and best-preserved medieval fortress. Originally constructed in 1333 as a fort by Akamatsu Norimura, it was transformed into a full-scale castle in the 1500s and later expanded by Ikeda Terumasa in the early 1600s. Unlike many Japanese castles, Himeji has never been destroyed by war, earthquake, or fire, and remains largely intact with original wooden interiors and towering white plaster walls.A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the castle is a masterpiece of feudal-era architecture. Visitors can wander through the maze-like defensive layout designed to confuse invaders, climb to the six-story main keep, and enjoy panoramic views over Himeji city. In spring, cherry blossoms frame the castle in soft pink, drawing thousands of photographers and travelers.2. Matsumoto Castle, Nagano PrefectureMatsumoto Castle in Matsumoto, in Nagano prefecture, in Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsRising from the plains of Nagano Prefecture, Matsumoto Castle, nicknamed the Crow Castle for its striking black walls, is one of Japans oldest surviving medieval fortresses. Originally built in 1504 as a simple fortification during the Sengoku era, it was later expanded into a five-story castle by the powerful Ishikawa clan in the late 16th century. Unlike many hilltop castles, Matsumoto was built on flat land, relying on an ingenious system of moats, walls, and trapdoors for defense.The castles brooding exterior contrasts with the refined wooden interiors, where steep staircases and narrow windows offer a glimpse into the tactical mind of a warlord. Visitors can explore the original main keep, climb to the top for views of the Japanese Alps, and even spot hidden gun and arrow slits in the walls.3. Inuyama Castle, Aichi PrefectureCastle of the Japanese City of Inuyama in Aichi Prefecture. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched above the Kiso River in Aichi Prefecture, Inuyama Castle stands as Japans oldest original surviving keep, completed in 1537. Built by Oda Nobuyasu, uncle of the famed warlord Oda Nobunaga, it played a strategic role in the power struggles of the Sengoku period. Unlike many castles that were later rebuilt in concrete, Inuyama retains its authentic wooden structure, steep staircases, and timeworn charm.This mountaintop fortress offers visitors a rare chance to step inside a true medieval relic. From the top floor, sweeping views of the river and surrounding countryside stretch into Gifu Prefecture. You can still feel the defensive logic in its narrow passageways and thick walls designed to slow attackers.The castle grounds are especially popular during cherry blossom season, when soft pink petals frame the dark-wood keep. Though compact compared to larger castles, Inuyamas historical depth and preserved architecture make it a must-see for history lovers and anyone seeking the soul of samurai-era Japan.4. Bitchu Matsuyama Castle, Okayama PrefectureBitchu-Matsuyama castle, Takahashi, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHigh in the misty mountains of Okayama Prefecture, Bitchu Matsuyama Castle quietly watches over the town of Takahashi. First built in 1240 and later fortified during the Sengoku period, it holds the unique title of Japans highest original mountain castle, perched 430 meters above sea level. Its lofty position made it nearly impossible to capture, and equally challenging to reach, even today.Unlike grander castles on flatlands, Bitchu Matsuyama blends into its natural surroundings, with stone walls rising from the rocky terrain and a modest wooden keep that feels more fortress than palace. The castle escaped demolition during the Meiji era, making it one of just twelve in Japan with an original donjon.Visitors who make the uphill trek are rewarded with panoramic views, crisp mountain air, and a hauntingly beautiful sea of clouds on misty mornings. Far from the crowds, Bitchu Matsuyama Castle offers an intimate and atmospheric glimpse into medieval Japan, where history and landscape become one.5. Maruoka Castle, Fukui PrefectureMaruoka Castle, Sakai, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsNestled atop a gentle hill in Fukui Prefecture, Maruoka Castle, nicknamed Kasumij or the Mist Castle, originally rose in 1576 under Shibata Katsutoyo, a nephew of the famed Shibata Katsuie, by order of warlord Oda Nobunaga. Its modest threestory tenshu (keep) is one of just twelve surviving original castle towers in Japan.Legend holds that during its construction, a human sacrifice, a oneeyed woman named Oshizu, was buried beneath the foundations. Locals say her sorrowful spirit still brings spring rains, earning the castle its misty reputation.Although devastated in the 1948 Fukui earthquake, the tenshu was painstakingly rebuilt in 1955 using over 70% of the original beams and stones. Today it stands amid Kasumigajo Park, surrounded by roughly 400 cherry trees. Each April, illuminated lanterns at night and blossoms by day make it feel as if the tower floats on clouds.Inside, narrow stone-dropping windows, steep wooden stairs, and the heavy stone-tiled roof reveal a functional medieval fortress, a subtle yet captivating glimpse into Sengoku-era ingenuity and folklore. With its eerie charm and historic depth, Maruoka Castle is a must-see medieval gem.6. Hikone Castle, Shiga PrefectureHikone Castle is a Japanese Edo-period castle in the city of Hikone, Shiga Prefecture. Source: Wikimedia CommonsLocated in Shiga Prefecture near Lake Biwa, Hikone Castle is one of Japans twelve original castles with an intact wooden keep. Construction began in 1603 and was completed in 1622 by the Ii clan, a powerful family under Tokugawa Ieyasu. The castle played a key role in regional governance during the early Edo period but traces its defensive roots to the turbulent Sengoku era.The keep itself is relatively small but built with strategic design, including angled walls, narrow windows for archers, and multiple layers of fortification. Visitors can explore the inside of the original donjon, walk along reconstructed walls and moats, and view samurai armor and historical documents at the on-site museum.Hikone Castle is also notable for its preserved Edo-period gardens, Genkyuen, and its easy accessibility, just a short walk from Hikone Station. For travelers interested in authentic medieval architecture without heavy reconstruction, Hikone offers a practical, educational experience grounded in real feudal history.7. Matsue Castle, Shimane PrefectureMatsue Castle in Matsue, Shimane prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsBuilt between 1607 and 1611 by daimyo Horio Yoshiharu, Matsue Castle (also called Plover Castle) in Shimane Prefecture is one of only twelve original feudal Japanese castles still standing, and one of just five designated National Treasures.As the only intact original main keep in the Sanin region, it serves as a genuine medieval example of flatlandhill (hirayama-j) castle design.Rising nearly 30m high, the wooden, black-and-white tenshu (donjon) features six interior floors despite appearing five stories tall. Defensive elements include moats, canals, stone walls, rain shutters, steep staircases, and a rare original well in the cellar.Visitors can climb to the top for 360 views over Matsue, Lake Shinji, and surrounding mountains. Inside, displays of samurai armor, ceramics, and feudal-era artifacts illustrate the castles history. The grounds, with a wide park, moats, ancient trees, and nearby boat tours on Horikawa canals, form a well-preserved castle town.8. Kochi Castle, Kchi PrefectureKochi Castle in Kochi, Kochi prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched on Otakasa Hill overlooking Kchi city, Kchi Castle is one of Japans twelve surviving medieval castles, and uniquely preserves its original keep and daimy palace. Constructed by Yamauchi Kazutoyo between 1601 and 1611 atop an earlier fortification, it served as the stronghold of the Tosa Domain under Tokugawa rule.Though a fire in 1727 destroyed much of the central structures, the tenshu and palace were meticulously rebuilt by 1753 in the original style. The castle later escaped Meiji-era demolition, wartime damage, and modern reconstructions. Today, all 15 honmaru buildings, including gates, walls, the keep, and the Kaitokukan palace, remain intact and designated Important Cultural Properties.Visitors can enter the original five-story keep (six floors inside) for sweeping city views, explore the palaces Shoin-style rooms, and wander through moats and stone walls. Defensive features like shinobi-gaeshi anti-climb spikes and narrow paths reflect Sengoku-Edo military architecture. The castle grounds double as a public park, particularly beautiful in spring when cherry blossoms and lantern-lit nights draw crowds.Accessible via a short walk or tram from JR Kchi Station, Kchi Castle offers a rare, authentic glimpse into feudal castle life. No replicas, just centuries of preserved history.9. Uwajima Castle, Ehime PrefectureUwajima Castle, Ehime Prefecture, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsStanding atop a hill in Ehime Prefecture, Uwajima Castle (Tsurushima-j) is a rare survivor of Japans medieval architecture. Built between 15961601 by renowned castle architect TdTakatora, its compact three-story wooden keep remains one of only twelve original Edo-period tenshu. Restored by Date Munetoshi in 1666, the sturdy structure reflects Sengoku-Edo defensive design, complete with steep stone steps, thick walls, and pentagonal moats.Visitors climb over 300 carefully laid stone steps to reach the keep. Inside, the original wooden interior houses displays of swords, armor, and samurai-era artifacts. The ascent is rewarded at the top floor with expansive views across Uwajima city, the harbor, and the rugged Onigaj Mountains.Surrounded by date-family gates, weapon storehouses, and mossy stone walls, the castles grounds are anchored by the Date Museum and shaded by ancient camphor and cherry trees.10. Matsuyama Castle, Ehime PrefectureMatsuyama-castle, Matsuyama, Japan. Source: Wikimedia CommonsPerched atop 132-meterKatsuyama hill in Matsuyama city, Matsuyama Castle (Iyo-Matsuyama Castle) was begun in 1602 by Kato Yoshiaki, a rewarded Sengoku warlord, and completed around 1627 under the Hisamatsu-Matsudaira clan. It is one of only twelve original wooden castle keeps and classified as an Important Cultural Property.The castles complex multi-tower layout links six yagura (watch-towers) and multiple gates via fortified corridors and steep stone walls, exemplifying Sengoku-era defensive design. Though originally five stories, the main keep was rebuilt as three stories between 18201854 following destruction by lightning and fire.Visit via ropeway, chairlift, or foot, climb to the tenshu for sweeping 360 views over Matsuyama, the surrounding mountains, and the Seto Inland Sea. Dont miss the Ninomaru Historical Garden at the base, with its elegant layout and seasonal cherry blossoms.Inside, original wooden interiors display samurai armor, maps, and period artifacts. Matsuyama Castles rare three-dimensional defensive architecture offers a hands-on window into feudal Japan.

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