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Not long after the eruption, a few gophers took a very strange day trip.

One of the main causes of the end of the Viking era was the Vikings conversion to Christianity. This changed their political relationship with their neighbors, making raids more difficult, and made them less distinct from the rest of Europe. While there are stories of Christian missionaries and Viking conversions as early as the 8th century, widespread conversion started in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. But what was the process and timeline for conversion, and what was the attraction of adopting a new religion?Conversion of Denmark: Harald BluetoothColorized projection on the Jelling Stone showing Christ on the Cross, Denmark, c. 10th century CE. Source: National Museum of DenmarkThe key figure in the Christianization of Denmark was King Harald Bluetooth. He was the son of King Gorm the Old, a Norse pagan, and Queen Thyra, a Christian.Harald is said to have been baptized while his father was still alive, in around 930 CE, to make alliances with his German neighbors. At the time, Christians were only supposed to enter into agreements with other Christians, so pagans would undergo baptism to make agreements legitimate.He is then said to have converted in earnest shortly after succeeding his father in 958 CE, when a missionary named Poppo proved the power of God by performing a miracle: holding a hot iron in his hands without injuring himself. This event is depicted on a gold decoration from the front of a church altar from Tamdrup in Jelling, possibly dating to around 1200 CE. The images also show the baptism of Harald Bluetooth.Witnessing this miracle prompted Harald not only to convert but also to establish a new Christian capital for himself at Roskilde on the island of Zealand. Nevertheless, he also erected the famous Jelling stones to both honor his parents and the conversion of Denmark, newly established as a unified kingdom, to Christianity. One of the stones displays an image of a crucified Christ, which has been likened to images of the Norse god Odin hung from Yggdrasil, the Tree of Life.Gold decoration showing Poppo holding a hot iron, Tamdrup, Jelling, Denmark, c. 1200. Source: National Museum of DenmarkAccording to the German chronicler Adam of Bremen, Haralds son, Sweyn Forkbeard, rebelled against his father and Christianity and set himself up as an opposing pagan ruler in Jelling. He eventually drove his father out of Denmark, along with the German bishops. Adam of Bremen describes Forkbeard as doing this because he was a staunch pagan, intolerant of Christianity. He also claims that Forkbeard was exiled to Scotland for 14 years and only found success as a king when he returned as a Christian.This story is not consistent with what we know of Sweyn Forkbeard. We dont know how he succeeded his father, but there is no evidence that he underwent an extended period of exile. He did go on to make himself the king of England, and when he died there, his body was sent back to Denmark to be buried in a church he had built. However, we also know that he recruited priests and bishops from England to travel to Denmark, preferring them to German bishops from Bremen, perhaps explaining Adam of Bremens antagonism towards him.Christianization continued in Denmark over the next century. King Canute IV, who ruled from 1080 to 1086, was expelled from office, firstly because he was passing laws in his own authority rather than using the traditional Thing assembly, which was intimately linked with pagan religion. Secondly, wealthy nobles were unhappy with the tithes they had to pay for new churches and monasteries. So, while the issues were linked with Christianity, the real issues were autocracy and taxes. A century later, in 1188, Canute was canonized, by which time Denmark was thoroughly Christianized.Conversion of Sweden: The Battle for UppsalaA woodcut depicting the Temple at Uppsala as described by Adam of Bremen, from Olaus Magnus Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 1555. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThere is evidence for early attempts at Christianization in Sweden. For example, the German bishop Ansgar constructed churches at Birka and Hedeby in the first half of the 9th century but attracted few to his cause. A century later, there were further attempts by a German bishop called Unni and English missionaries, but they didnt have the support of the Swedish leadership.It was only at the end of the 10th century, in the 990s, that the first Christian king of Sweden, Olof Skotkonung, ascended to power. But unlike Harald Bluetooth, he was not powerful enough to convert his nation. Instead, an agreement of religious tolerance was struck between the king and pagan leaders at the important pagan cult center at Uppsala. Nevertheless, this would open the door for the establishment of more churches and Christian centers, and Christianity began to trickle in.According to the Orkneyinga saga and the Hervarar saga, in the 1080s, King Inge the Elder tried to end pagan sacrifices at Uppsala. This caused public outcry, and he was forced into exile. His brother-in-law, Blot-Sweyn, was made king in his place, on the condition that he allow sacrifices to continue. After three years, Inge returned and killed his brother-in-law, retaking power and, according to the Hervarar saga, forcing widespread conversion of the Swedes. However, the Heimskringla suggests that Inge had challenges to his power from other pagan nobles and leaders.Nevertheless, progress continued, and between 1134 and 1140, a Christian center, an episcopal see, was established at Uppsala. When the Pope established its archdiocese in Sweden in 1164, it was also at Uppsala.Olaf Tryggvason: The Christianization of Norway, Iceland, and GreenlandDrawing of Heddal Stave Church, a typical Norwegian style stave church, from the book Norge fremstillet i Tegninger, 1848. Source: National Library of NorwayThe conversion of Norway to Christianity started with King Hakon the Good in the 10th century. The son of King Harald Fairhair, the king sent this younger son to the court of King Aethelstan of England, probably as a hostage. There, he was taught to be a Christian. With King Aethelstans support, he took power in Norway from his half-brother Eric Bloodaxe and became the first Christian king of Norway in 934. However, the Historiae Norwegiae says that he allowed both paganism and Christianity to flourish during his rule.His death in 961 CE was followed by decades of inconsistency, with his successor Harald Greyhide destroying pagan temples, and his successor Hakon Jarl leading a pagan revival, despite pressure to convert from the neighboring Danish king Harald Bluetooth. But it was with the rise of Olaf Tryggvason that Norway truly converted.Main entrance to Heddal Stave Church decorated in a typical Norse style. Source: Norwegian Directorate for Cultural HeritageOlaf Tryggvason was a grandson of Harald Fairhair, who ousted Hakon Jarl and made himself king of Norway in 995 CE. While he was raised pagan and then spent the early years of his life raiding and as a mercenary, he reportedly converted to Christianity after receiving an accurate prophecy from a Christian See on the Isles of Scilly. He also relied on an important alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II to maintain his power, so Tryggvason zealously sought the conversion of Norway.King Olaf sent missionaries to other lands, successfully converting the Orkney Islands, which were part of Norway. At home, he is said to have destroyed pagan temples and forced people to convert using threats of exile, hostages, mutilation, and torture. These actions made Tryggvason unpopular, and he died at the Battle of Svolder in 1000. Nevertheless, the process of Christianization continued under his successor, Sweyn Forkbeard, whom we have already met. When Pope Adrian IV visited Norway in the 1150s, he established the Norwegian archdiocese and canonized Olaf Tryggvason as a Christian saint.Coin of Olav Tryggvason, Norway, c. 995-1000. Source: Museum of Cultural History, University of OsloOlafs zealousness also saw the conversion of Iceland and Greenland. According to the sagas, many of the original Icelandic settlers in the late 9th century were already Christians. This suggests that the pursuit of religious freedom may have been one of the motivations for migration. A century later, Olaf sent missionaries to Iceland to force conversion. The Icelandic leaders decided that Iceland needed to unite if it wanted to remain independent of Norwegian power, and this required religious unity. They decided that everyone should be baptized as a Christian, though private pagan practices would be tolerated. Over time, Christianity became dominant, and laws were passed to outlaw certain pagan activities.The conversion of Greenland was less dramatic, beginning with Tryggvason baptizing Leif Erikson, the son of the colonys leader, Erik the Red, when he spent time in Norway. Eriksons mother was already a Christian, but his father was a staunch pagan. It was relatively straightforward for Erikson to lead the conversion of the small community when he took over as leader following the death of his father.Why Did the Vikings Convert to Christianity?Thors hammer with cross etched pattern. Source: Swedish History MuseumWhile this explains the history of the Vikings converting to Christianity, it does not fully explain why the Vikings chose to abandon their sophisticated native religion for Christianity.On many levels, it was political. As we have seen, the first baptisms were probably done purely for show to secure trading agreements and treaties. But then we see rulers like Hakon the Good and Olaf Tryggvason taking power with the support of powerful Christian kings such as Aethelstan of England and the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II. Encouraging widespread conversion was often a condition of these alliances.In addition, Viking society was changing. In the early Viking Age, Vikings were divided into small communities of independent landowners who gave their loyalty to a local chief. But in the 10th and 11th centuries, those smaller entities were being consolidated into larger kingdoms under powerful kings like Harald Bluetooth. This mandated a change in approach.With bigger communities and more diverse interests, it was harder to rule via the Viking Thing, which required gathering powerful nobles and ruling by common consent. We saw King Canute IV fall foul of the Thing. More attractive was the autocratic rule of Christian kings, supported by the vast administrative infrastructure of the Church, needed to administer growing territories.It is noteworthy that the Vikings left behind very few written texts in their native runic language, and certainly nothing that looks like a ledger or law code. These only emerged with the rise of Christianity and the adoption of Latin text, even when it was adapted to express the Norse language. We hear of Christian priests and bishops in Scandinavia, where they would have assisted the administration. This made their presence political, as we see with Sweyn Forkbeard expelling German bishops in favor of priests from England.Folio 10:23a from Thet Nyia Testamentit p Swensko, a Swedish language Bible, 1526. Source: Uppsala University LibraryViking leaders also knew that the Church represented a potential source of wealth; they had raided enough of them over the years. Raiding became more difficult with conversion as Christians were discouraged from attacking other Christians, and certainly from attacking the Church. But raiding had already become harder as their typical targets became better at defense, fortifying their communities, and moving important religious sites inland beyond Viking reach. For many leaders, it was time to start using the Church to accumulate wealth in other ways, like we see with Canutes tithes.When it came to converting nobles, being baptized represented a way of demonstrating acceptance of the new political structure and allegiance to the king. Nobles would have had their own dependents convert in turn, leading to a top-down conversion process.The king may have cared little about the religious beliefs and practices of individuals, and many who converted probably continued pagan practices. Interestingly, we find traditional Thors Hammer amulets decorated with crosses, indicating people with a foot in both camps. However, the Church put pressure on leaders to encourage true conversion, leading to the destruction of pagan temples and laws outlawing certain pagan practices.Section of the Gosforth cross showing the imprisonment of Loki and Odin on his steed from Norse mythology, England, c. 10th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsGreater intermixing with Christians from other parts of Europe would also have been a factor. We know that Vikings who settled in new territories, such as England and France, converted quite rapidly. They took local Christian wives and participated in the local community that often centered on the Church. The Vikings also brought Christian slaves back to Scandinavia with them, where they lived side-by-side. We hear of many examples of pagans and Christians marrying in the Viking world, such as the pagan Erik the Red and his wife Thjodhild.All of these factors played a part, and conversion was a gradual process that took around 200 years. But conversion does not mean that traditional religion was completely forgotten. The 10th-century Gosforth Cross from a Viking community in England is a Christian monument, but shows imagery from Norse mythology, including Ragnark.

The question of Genghis Khans genetic history arose in the 2000s, when academics began looking into how many descendants belonged to the fearsome leader. Researchers have tracked Khans Y chromosome and discovered a dizzying number of relations, tracing Genghis Khans genetic path all the way from China to Europe. Many of Genghis Khans sons went on to become conquerors themselves. Mongols settled in these areas, taking local women as wives and concubines.The Estimated Number of Khans DescendantsMongol Empire Greatest Expansion Source: WikimediaKhans far-flung conquests and family led to this astonishing number: 16 million. Or, 0.5% of the worlds men are thought to possess the Y chromosome of this ruthless, adaptable ruler. How so many people related to Genghis Khan or his family need some explanation. First, invasion and conquest established the genetic footprint. Simply taking so much territory and people into their sphere meant intermingling.The Mongols also practiced polygamy, a common practice of the time. Genghis Khan had numerous wives or concubines. Whether gained by alliances, conquest, rape, or tribute, the Khan and his sons produced many children ensuring the spread of their Y chromosome.Inadvertently, the father-to-son system (patrilineal) established by Khan ensured that his lineage remained dominant. Like any smart ruler, Khan sought to keep those close loyal. He allocated conquered lands to his sons and generals.Khan encouraged marriage between the Mongol elite and local nobles. Wisely the Mongol ruler gave important administrative or military positions only to trusted kin. With all this entwined and the Empires duration guaranteed, Khans DNA would endure.Where Genghis Khans Genetic Legacy Is More CommonMongol Genes Found in Tajikistan Source: Molecular Biology and EvolutionGenetic pockets inevitably formed during the Mongol Empire, as Mongols and locals settled along trade routes such as the Silk Road. And this legacy trickled down to the modern era. Given Genghis Khans reproductive success, he or his descendants spread his genes to far-flung locations, including the Russian Caucasus, Tajikistan, and China. These descendants increased over time, growing into thousands and later millions, as discovered in several genetic studies over the last thirty years.An example of tracking the Y chromosome is in Tajikistan. An essential part of the Silk Road, the Mongol armies devastated Tajikistan, especially to the north. The following image illustrates where Mongol DNA traces are found.Ethnic Groups with Khans DNAHazaras Men,1840 by Atkinson. Source: WikimediaAs with Khans genetic hotspots, the Y chromosome is more prevalent in certain ethnic groups than in others. While Khans DNA is found in several areas, certain groups contain a higher percentage. With this, the average reader will get an inkling of the population bearing Khans male-only descended DNA. At 0.5% worldwide, thats a lot. Scientists believe this DNA primarily originates from Khans Mongol sons or other family members.Mongolia tops the list, with an estimated 35% of males bearing Khans DNA. Apart from this obvious Mongol stronghold, other groups with particularly high percentages are in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Others, like the Hazaras of Afghanistan and Pakistan, have significant numbers of men bearing Genghis Khans unchangeable Y chromosome, perhaps as much as 30%. Afghanistan had become a crossroads due to the Silk Road, which attracted Khans armies. The Y chromosome percentage drops sharply, with Northern China showing that about 8% carry Khans lineage.Genghis Khans Y Chromosome LineageA manuscript showing Genghis rewarding the Four Dogs and other followers at the Kurultai of 1206 CE. Source: BnFThe quest to track Khans descendants began with a 2003 study by Tatiana Zerja et al. (other researchers), titled The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols, which examined sixteen groups across Central Asia, from the Pacific to the Caspian Sea. This study investigated the distinctive Y chromosome linked to Genghis Khan. The researchers determined that 8% of men in the region carried it. Later, the research methods and results would be disputed. But Genghis Khans Y chromosome is no doubt present.Later studies confirmed and refined the 2003 study. With the Y chromosomes paternal descent serving as a unique data tracker, newer technology yielded improved genetic results. Specific populations were identified with precise results, and Khans DNA was shown. This led to a higher yield, suggesting that Khans ancestors may have numbered 17 million! What began as a genetic study transcended the fact that one of historys significant figures had millions of ancestors.

Continuous Seljuk raids and sieges in Anatolia in the 11th century CE culminated in a war between these nomadic newcomers and the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire. When the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, and the Byzantine emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes, met on the fields of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, neither could have imagined the outcome: the weakening of Byzantine rule and the gradual Turkification of Anatolia.The Byzantines in the 11th Century CEMosaic of Theodora, Basilica of San Vitale, Italy, c. 547 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn the mid-11th century CE, the Byzantine Empire was experiencing political and economic turmoil. In 1057, a civil war broke out between two rival Byzantine factions. A few years earlier, the Pechenegs, a semi-nomadic Turkic people employed as mercenaries, had revolted. The numerous wars that the Byzantines were involved in worsened the already stagnant economy.They were also experiencing a religio-political crisis. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches had developed theological differences that led to each side being branded as heretics and blasphemers by the other. By 1054, this dispute had exploded into a full-blown schism between the two Churches.From 1025 to 1081, the Byzantines had seen a total of 13 emperors. The quick turnaround of emperors (and empresses) reflected the divisions amongst the ruling class. Factionalism grew as the military class began to support royals who they believed would enlarge their estates in the provinces.Amidst all of this, the Turks, nomadic newcomers to Western Asia, had begun to chip away at the Byzantine frontiers. Destructive raids on eastern and central Anatolian cities encouraged locals to migrate to safer areas, allowing the Turks to encroach further into the Byzantine heartland.Arrival of the SeljuksCoronation of Seljukid Sultan Sancar, by Rashid-al-Dins in Jami-al Tawarih, c. 14th century CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Seljuks first emerged on the world stage in the 11th century CE. Originally a nomadic pastoralist people, the Seljuks lived a tribal lifestyle on the steppes of Central Asia. They were part of a large political confederation-turned-ethnic group called the Oghuz Turks. In the late 10th to the early 11th centuries, a chieftain named Seljuk led his clan on a long migration through Central Asia. His warriors worked as mercenaries for local dynasties like the Ghaznavids.Sometime during these migrations, Seljuk and his tribe converted to Islam, which changed the nomads relationships with existing Islamic powers. Under Seljuks grandsons, Tughril and Chaghri Beg, the clan besieged and conquered several Central and Western Asian cities, including Merv (in modern-day Turkmenistan), Nishapur (Iran), and Baghdad (Iraq). This Turkic influx into Western Asia caused civil and political unrest as sedentary and semi-nomadic populations encountered one another.At the same time, both the Turks and the existing Islamic civilisations had to learn to adapt and accept one another. The so-called civilized sedentary lands began to appreciate the strength and conquering power of steppe armies, while the Turks were introduced to Islamo-Persian styles of governance and bureaucracy.A shrewd and efficient leader, Tughril Beg quickly realized that he and his people would have to adapt to survive in these new lands. He had the khutbah (traditional Friday sermon) read in his name and declared himself Sultan in the Islamic style. Since he died childless, Tughril was succeeded by his nephew, Alp Arslan. Under Alp Arslan, Turkmen, another name for the nomadic Turks, conducted raids into the nearby Christian territories of Georgia, Armenia, and Eastern Anatolia.Seljuk Raids and ConquestsTurkmen soldiers of the Seljuk Court, in Book of Antidotes of Psuedo-Gallen, c. 1250. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Turkmen were a militaristic people. They were fiercely loyal to their hierarchical and highly patriarchal tribes, clans, and families. This type of system developed on the volatile Central Asian steppe, where nomadic empires and tribes frequently raided, subjugated, and even enslaved one another.The Oghuz had 24 paramount tribes. The Seljuk clan belonged to the Kinik tribe, considered a princely and royal one. The Turkmen tribes were critical to Seljuk military successes. Tribal chieftains had thousands of warriors under their command. The Seljuks certainly understood the value of these people. The Persian vizier and philosopher Nizam-ul-Mulk encouraged the Seljuk sultans to keep the Turkmen satisfied because they had played a great role in the Seljuk conquests.While the Seljuk dynasty was increasingly taking on the personality of a sedentary empire in the 1040s, the Turkmen tribes began to grow discontented. They pillaged and plundered many Muslim towns, risking the legitimacy of the Seljuk government. Probably to direct the Turkmens energy elsewhere, Sultan Alp Arslan organized multiple raids in the 1050s-60s.Taking advantage of Byzantine military weakness, the Seljuks routinely raided Anatolian provinces, even going as far as Sivas (Central Anatolia) in 1059. Although the main effort was to secure pasturage and plunder, in 1064 the raid of Ani, a medieval Armenian city, turned into a siege and conquest.When Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes ascended to the Byzantine throne in 1068, he quickly implemented military reforms to stop the Turkish advance. Several failed peace treaties throughout the 1060s culminated in Romanos IVs decision to wage war against the Seljuks.The Battle of ManzikertArcheological dig to locate the site of the Battle of Manzikert, Eastern Turkey. Source: Arkeoloji Sanat YaynlarDiogenes IV sent his weary army on a long trek across Anatolia. The diverse force, numbering roughly 40,000 soldiers, consisted of Byzantine troops and mercenaries of Pecheneg, Bulgarian, and Frankish origin. Romanos ordered half of these troops to march to Ahlat to take the nearby fortress while the rest continued to Manzikert, significantly reducing the size and power of his army.Still, on the 23rd of August, he captured Manzikert. A few days later, the Pecheneg and other Turkic mercenaries deserted to the Seljuk side. As a force of around 40,000-50,000, the Seljuks now outnumbered the Byzantine army. Despite this, Seljuk troops began to disengage with their enemies, and when pursued, their cavalry withdrew. Byzantine forces, initially confused, became convinced that the Turks were retreating. What they did not realize was that the Seljuks were using a classic tactic of steppe warfare in which horse archers, feigning retreat, would hit their enemies with a barrage of arrows.Initially, it seemed as though the Byzantines were to have the upper hand when they captured some of Sultan Alp Arslans camp. However, a series of confusions ultimately caused their destruction. Romanos was aware of his armys exhaustion and called for a retreat. Instead of covering this withdrawal, the rearguard also withdrew, leaving the Emperor and his Varangian Guard to be encircled by the Seljuks. Taking advantage of the confusion, the Turks used the crescent tactic, also known as a pincer movement, to surround and destroy the Byzantine army.Capture of Romanos IV DiogenesAlp Arslan stepping on the throne of Emperor Romanos IV, from French manuscript MS Franais 232, fol. 323, c. 15th century CE. Source: National Library of FranceThe Seljuks, now having the upper hand, were quick to find Emperor Romanos, who was wounded. He was taken prisoner to the camp of Sultan Alp Arslan, who was surprised at the state of the emperor. Appearing ragged and dirty, the Emperor was now at the mercy of Alp Arslan.According to legend, the Sultan placed his foot on the Emperors neck, forcing him to the ground in a ritual of submission. It is more likely that the two kings showed courtesy towards one another, both aware of their opponents nobility. Romanos stayed in captivity for eight days, during which the two sides reached a peace agreement.Romanos was set free once the Byzantines agreed to pay an annual tribute and a ransom to the Seljuks. Yet Romanos troubles were just beginning. Taking advantage of the chaotic situation, a prominent family named Doukas and their supporters overthrew the emperor, replacing him with Michael VII Doukas. Romanos was then blinded with a red-hot iron, a common form of punishment in Byzantium, and exiled to the island of Prote, where he died in 1072.Alp Arslan, on the other hand, gained fame and popularity from the victory. Contemporary sources wrote about his dominating, elegant, and kingly appearance. The battle also became a symbol of his righteousness and struggle for Gods cause. In an interesting twist of fate, five months after Emperor Romanos demise, Alp Arslan was killed after being stabbed by the rebel commander of Berzem fortress.Aftermath of ManzikertExtent of the Byzantine Empire by 1170 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe Battle of Manzikert had major socio-political ramifications, like the Battle of Hastings in England only five years earlier. It was the decisive point after which the Byzantines began to lose control of Anatolia and started a protracted Turkic migration and settlement in the region.However, these changes did not occur immediately. Although the Byzantines conceded the cities of Manzikert, Antioch, and Edessa to the Seljuks, the latter returned to their capital of Ray (in Iran). From there, they focussed their attention on raids in Georgia and their struggle against the Fatimids, the North African rivals of the Abbasid Caliphate.The effect of Manzikert on Byzantium was much greater. It caused another bout of internecine strife as the court, again factionalized between Emperor Romanos and a contender from the noble Doukas family. Western European mercenaries, like Roussel de Bailleul, took advantage of the political chaos to increase their power by forming principalities. De Bailleul further destabilized the Byzantine Empire after he and his army sacked a district of Constantinople and supported John Doukas as a challenger to the throne.Turkification of AnatoliaAtlas showing a bey (Turkmen lord) and the beyliks (principalities), by Abraham Cresques, c. 1375 CE. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAlthough Anatolia was still largely controlled by Crusader and Byzantine forces after the battle, the Seljuk victory allowed Turkic generals to carve out their own principalities. Especially in the uj or frontier territories, Turkmen generals were encouraged to settle with their clans and protect Seljuk borders. As always, the nomadic Turkmen clans played a major role in increasing the territories of their overlords. Not only did they supply manpower during battle, but they were constantly in search of new pasture land for their flocks, the main source of their livelihoods. Historians note that Byzantine-Seljuk peace treaties were often breached not by the Seljuks, but Turkmen nomads who invaded Byzantine villages in search of fields to graze their animals.By 1100, an array of Turkic principalities including the Artukids, Saltukids, and Danishmendids, cemented their power. These border principalities, which in later centuries would include the Ottomans, advanced their states through the patronage of art, architecture, and knowledge. They built religious structures, including madrasahs (schools) and mosques, as well as secular structures, like caravanserais.As the Turkmen clans began to settle in cities with rich pasturage, they also interacted with local populations. These interactions did not solely revolve around raids and plunder. On the frontiers, both Byzantine and Turkmen populations were isolated from the cultural and legal centers of their respective governments. They developed a mutual culture based on chivalry and heroism, reflected in their folk music and poetry. Assimilation and intermarriage were thus not unusual in these areas, occurring over centuries of co-existence.For the Turks, the Battle of Manzikert became a symbol of the beginning of the Turkish conquest of Anatolia. For the Byzantines, it was seen as a disaster that triggered another bout of political and economic decline, which eventually ended in the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453.

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Theres no need to put up with an uncomfortable mouse for gaming if you dont have big bucks to spend, as this Razer Deathadder gaming mouse deal enables you to pick up a great rodent for just $19.60. The current Deathadder Essential is already very reasonably priced with its MSRP of $29.99, but at this price, the white 2018 model has a practically throwaway cost.With its ergonomic shape and classic design, this Razer mouse range has been a staple of PC gaming loadouts since its introduction back in 2006, with our Razer Deathadder V3 review giving one of the latest models a score of 8/10 and a place on our guide to buying the best gaming mouse. The Deathadder Essential 2018 model on offer here has the same shape and five programmable buttons that are beloved by gamers around the world, including me, but reduces the price by using a more basic sensor and switches. Continue reading Grab a Razer Deathadder gaming mouse for under 20 bucks, if you're quickMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Razer Blade 16 2025 review, Razer DeathAdder V3 review , Best gaming mouse

In Cities Skylines 2, the smallest things can make the biggest difference. When the city-building sequel was first revealed, the introduction of both roundabouts and a new road-building tool that let you create instant, symmetrical grids felt like the arrival of the Renaissance - finally, even in the grandest metropolis, traffic could flow freely. But the inverse is also true; even though they may seem minor, the absence of bicycles and bicycle lanes has become a persistent CS2 sore. Bridges and Ports may be delayed. Rivals like Transport Fever 3 and Worldwide Rush could be coming to steal its thunder. But Colossal Order isnt giving up on Cities Skylines 2, as a new update adds some essential building options that should improve your traffic and train networks. Continue reading New Cities Skylines 2 update adds essential building options to improve trafficMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Cities Skylines 2 review, Cities Skylines 2 roads, Cities Skylines 2 maps