The summer solstice, the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere, falls on June 20 this year in North America.

MCCPs have previously been detected in Antarctica and Asia, but not in North America.

400 million years before the K-Pg boundary, the world was already testing out its appetite for apocalypse with a little-known event called the Late Ordovician mass extinction.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 that brought Prince William of Orange to the throne of England at the expense of King James II soon caused Ireland to be dragged into a European war as part of a contest involving Britain, the Netherlands, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. As the deposed King of England sought to regain his crown, he succumbed to defeat against Williams multinational force at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Williamite Wars continued into 1691, with lasting consequences for Ireland.The Glorious RevolutionBattle of the Boyne by Jan van Huchtenburg, 1700. Source: Rijksmuseum AmsterdamIn 1685, King James II succeeded his brother Charles II as King of England and Scotland. Although James was a Catholic, the Protestant majority in both nations accepted his right to rule, anticipating the succession of his Protestant daughters Mary and Anne upon his death. However, the birth of a son to his Catholic wife Mary of Modena alarmed the English political establishment.Fearing the return to Catholicism, prominent English Protestants offered the crown to Prince William of Orange, the stadtholder of the Netherlands and husband of James daughter Mary. The outbreak of the War of the Grand Alliance (1688-97) in the European continent encouraged William to accept the offer and prevent the prospect of a Catholic Anglo-French alliance.After William landed in England in November 1688, James army saw mass defections and he fled England in December. James cause was not helped by the actions of his deputies in the years prior where Protestant militias had been disbanded and the standing army purged of non-Catholics. Irish soldiers began to make up a disproportionate amount (nearly two thirds) of the royal army and Catholic officers were appointed to important roles.James fled to Ireland where he called a parliament that was overwhelmingly Catholic. Most of Ireland had declared for James, apart from some areas around Fermanagh and Derry where the Jacobites mounted a lackluster siege against a determined but cautious defence. Protestant horsemen from Fermanagh, descendants of the Border Reivers, launched attacks on Jacobite lines and defeated a Jacobite army with infantry support. The arrival of Williamite troops in September 1689 brought relief to the Protestants in Ireland.A European WarSketch of Aughrim by Jan Wyck, 1691. Source: Wikimedia CommonsHis advance guard of 14,000 was led by an experienced German soldier, Frederick Schomberg, but their failure to press their numerical advantage led to a prolonging of the war and the death of nearly half his force to disease in their winter quarters. William arrived in 1690, leading an army of 36,000. Williams army included a vast array of nationalities as this was but part of a larger war. The Danes were nearly a fifth of his force and were sent to honor a treaty. He had also had state troops from the Netherlands as well as Protestant French and German contingents. Lastly, Protestant Irish and British offered their services.Arrayed against them were Irish, British, and French soldiers. Royalists loyal to James had fled to Ireland while the king of France provided military assistance to his fellow Catholic monarch. It was in French interests to support the fighting in Ireland and Scotland to divert British resources from the continent. It was a poor trade for the Irish, as the Irish soldiers who served in French uniform were more experienced than the raw French recruits in Ireland.Both armies were equipped in a similar manner, though the Williamite forces possessed superior equipment. The Jacobite muskets were mostly matchlocks while the Williamites had a high proportion of the more modern flintlock. There were also fewer pikemen in the Williamite forces. The Irish had about five musketeers per pikeman while the Williamites typically had six to one, or in the case of the Danish contingent, no pikes at all.Battle of the Two Kings at the BoyneBattle of the Boyne by Jan Wyck, 1693. Source: National Gallery of IrelandTwo kings came to blows on July 1, 1690. James made a bold stand at the River Boyne to oppose the crossing of the superior Williamite army. The Williamites used numbers to their advantage, forcing a crossing at three points on the river. This forced the smaller Jacobite force to split their army correspondingly. The Dutch Blue Guards made a determined crossing, sweeping away the raw Jacobite infantry before enduring wave after wave of Jacobite cavalry, so much that even William feared his elite troops would be wiped out.The cavalry were eventually driven off by reinforcing Danish troops but the Jacobite horsemen again prevented a rout of their infantry by fighting a rearguard action. Most armies suffered heavy casualties in retreats, but the constant cavalry charges bought time for the Jacobite infantry to escape. They paid a heavy price, and the next day only 16 unwounded men could be found in a regiment of 200 while another could muster only 30 fit for duty. The bulk of the Jacobites escaped and ultimate victory for the Williamite forces would be still a year off. The battle had also cost the life of Williams experienced general Schomberg, who had argued against Williams desire to force a crossing of the Boyne earlier in the day.The Boyne remains one of the most famous battles in Ireland. Although it was more of a skirmish, with fewer than 2,000 dead out of over 50,000 combatants, it was an important strategic victory, enabling the Williamites to secure possession of Dublin. Perhaps even more significantly, the battle had a major impact on morale. William was praised by his troops for his conduct in the battle and his reputation grew on the continent. James, who had fled from the field, earned the expletive epithet Samus a chaca from his disgruntled Irish troops.Sieges and RaidsA Lost Cause by Andrew Gow, 1888. Source: Tate GalleryWilliamite forces took Dublin two days later. The Jacobites retreated behind the line of the river Shannon, abandoning the east of the country to William. The Williamites split into two columns, one to lay siege to Athlone while the second marched for Limerick. Both sieges were unsuccessful. A breach was formed in Limerick but the Williamites lost hundreds of troops storming it. They were also hampered by a daring raid by Patrick Sarsfield, a Jacobite cavalry officer, who ambushed their siege artillery en route to the city, destroying it all.Guerrilla warfare increased during 1690 and into 1691 as the Williamite forces suffered the depredations of the rapparees and tories, Irish partisans who ambushed columns and convoys, forcing troops to be diverted to garrison and escort vital assets. Williamites were also hampered by the poor state of infrastructure in the country, a Corporal Trim declaring the whole country was like a puddle.In September 1690, the Earl of Marlborough (who would later achieve greater fame as the victor of the Battle of Blenheim and the ancestor of Winston Churchill) led an amphibious operation to take Cork and Kinsale for William. James (and many French troops) had already left Ireland for France, to the derision of his soldiers. The Jacobite camp began to split between a war and peace party, with some arguing for negotiations while others, like Sarsfield, aimed to fight to the bitter end. The Williamites slowly consolidated their hold on the country, holding nearly three quarters by the spring of 1691. French naval victories had boosted Jacobite morale but the land war was still very much in Williams favor. The Jacobites held out in hope for more support from France.Battle of AughrimBattle of Aughrim by John Mulvany, 1885. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrench ships arrived in Limerick but they brought only officers and weapons and no troops. Both sides began mustering for the final struggle, the Williamites taking Athlone on June 30. A French general, Marquis de St. Ruth, took command of the Jacobite forces in the face of increasing fractures in the Jacobite camp. He was opposed by a Dutchman, Godert de Ginkel, another professional soldier who took charge after William left Ireland.St. Ruth dug his army in along a defensible ridge, and for once his army of roughly 20,000 was similar in numbers to the Williamites. Heavy mist prevented the battle until afternoon of July 12. The initial Williamite attack was thrown back with heavy losses, a Danish soldier describing the ridges to be ablaze with musketry. Overjoyed at the infantrys success, St. Ruth ventured forward to his cavalry and was decapitated by a cannonball. Now leaderless, the Jacobite army began to disintegrate, the cavalry abandoning the infantry in a cruel reversal of the Boyne. Despite these setbacks, some infantry continued to fight till nightfall.Sarsfield led some cavalry in a rearguard action but many Jacobite infantrymen were killed by pursuing horsemen. The Williamites lost heavily too, with Jacobite troops executing prisoners when the battle was lost, a common practice. With over 4,000 Jacobite dead and at least 2-3,000 Williamites, the battle is believed to be one of the bloodiest ever fought in Ireland or Britain. An eyewitness described the bodies looked like a great flock of sheep, scattered up and down the country for four miles.Flight of the Wild GeeseFlight of the Wild Geese by Unknown. Source: BBCWhile lesser known than the Boyne, Aughrim at the time was the bloodier and more decisive battle. The Williamites were generous in their praise. Never did the Irish fight so well in their own country as they did this day stated one soldier, while another remarked, Never was an attack made with more bravery and courage. Aughrim was the last battle of the war. Galway surrendered on July 21 and Limerick on October 3 after a brief siege. Aughrim had shattered the Jacobite army. With no hope of victory, Sarsfield surrendered the remnants of his army at Limerick.Soldiers had three options: return home, join the Williamites, or be shipped to France to join the Irish Brigade there. 2,000 lay down their arms to go home, 1,000 changed sides, the remaining 14,000 left Ireland forever, sailing to France as the Wild Geese, emigrant Irish soldiers fighting for France on the continent. Others ventured to Austria, Spain or Italy to soldier there. They were not the first nor the last Irish soldiers to fight under a foreign flag.The terms of the Treaty of Limerick were not honored. With three bloody wars in less than a century, the Protestant Ascendancy that dominated the Irish Parliament had no intention of easing up on the Catholic population. A series of Penal Laws were brought in to restrict Catholic rights. This policy of oppression would continue until Catholic emancipation was introduced by the Duke of Wellington in the 19th century. The Jacobite cause would continue until its final bloody repulse at Culloden in 1745.

Human resilience shines during the Little Ice Age, a period of intense cooling from the 14th to 19th centuries. Europe, Alaska, and the North Atlantic battled severely low temperatures. While the exact cause is unclear, theories range from volcanic activity to changes in Earths orbit. One compelling idea suggests the decline of Indigenous populations in North America allowed forests to reclaim farmland, absorbing massive amounts of carbon and triggering the climate shift.Origins of the Term Little Ice AgeLittle Ice Age temperatures. Source: WikipediaThe term Little Ice Age was introduced by Franois Matthes, a Dutch geologist who noted in his 1939 report that glaciers in Californias Sierra Nevada had experienced a resurgence at some point over the past several thousand years. Since then, the term has been used routinely by scholars.While the exact timeline of the occurrence is still unknown, scientists have attempted to pinpoint the timing. According to British climate scientist Hubert Lambs analysis of centuries-old temperature records from Europe, there was a notably warm climate from around AD 1000 to AD 1200. The period was followed by falling temperatures that lasted between the 14th and 19th centuries. The period with cold temperatures was referred to as the Little Ice Age.How Greenland and the Dutch Republic Adapted to the Climate ChangeDutch whaling off the coast of Spitsbergen by Abraham Storck, via Queensferry at WarThe Little Ice Age changed peoples lives. Scientists have found evidence of increased seafaring activity in some regions where there was more sea ice. For example, from the early 1600s, there was an increase in whale-hunting activities in some parts of Europe. This was because there was not enough plant oil. Subsequently, whale oil became a suitable alternative.The years between 16th and 18th centuries were a time of growth In places such as the Dutch Republic. Despite being affected by the Little Ice Age, the nation was able to survive by importing farm produce to offset the diminished harvests. Ships carrying trade goods enabled the republics economy to thrive by enhancing trade. The fluyt, a specific model of ships designed to carry cargo across seas, was developed during this period. As a result, the Dutch did well while many of their neighbors struggled.Dutch fluyt, 1677. Source: WikipediaAt the same time, advancements in Dutch ship-building technology as well as changes in ocean currents allowed Dutch ships to reach far-away markets faster. Creative Dutch citizens, for example, created icebreakers to enable ships to sail more easily across ice-covered waters. The ships featured modified ship hulls and keels that allowed them to break through the ice more easily.In places such as Greenland, the climate grew colder and harsher after 1250. Greenland was largely cut off by ice from the 1400s until the 1700s. As a result, the Norse Viking inhabitants there were compelled to slowly change their diet away from farmed produce. By the early 1300s, seal-hunting increased as seals made up a significant portion of their food. Elsewhere in Europe, people starved due to failed harvests and food prices skyrocketed.How England Coped with the Climate ChangeSeal-hunting in Greenland. Source: WikipediaIn the late 1600s, the Little Ice Age caused fuel prices in England to rise since more people needed to warm their homes. Notably, the River Thames froze over.During that period, the poor turned to the wealthy for charity. As life in places such as London became more difficult for Londons poor to survive following major job losses, there was diminished money circulation. The same situation was unfolding across Europe. To try and address the situation, King Charles II of England asked the Bishop of London in 1684 to collect money for the poor in the city and nearby towns. He also provided funds from the royal treasury for the endeavor.River Thames frost fair, 1684. Source: WikipediaSupport from local churches and contributions from rich people through the church kept many from dying of hunger. Because of this, England is estimated to have experienced fewer deaths compared to countries like France which was hit hard, especially following the period which led to unprecedented famine. Even so, the harsh winter of 1684 still caused many deaths.

Morgan le Fey, or Morgan le Fay, is a character who appears in many versions of the Arthurian legends and is a popular character in modern retellings. She is famous as an evil sorceress who schemed against King Arthur throughout his life. In reality, she was more complicated than just a straightforward villain. In fact, her earliest appearances present her as completely benevolent. Nevertheless, in this article, we will examine the most famous versions of her life story in the Arthurian legends. We will see how these versions really portray her and how she attempted to oppose the high king of Britain.Origins of Morgan le Fey: Arthurs Half-Sister?Scene showing Uther together with Igerna from Prose Merlin, by Robert de Boron, in BnF Manuscrit Franais 95 folio 149v, c. 13th century. Source: Bibliothque Nationale de FranceThe character of Morgan le Fey in popular tradition is very different from how she appears in the earliest sources. She first appears in Geoffrey of Monmouths Vita Merlini, or Life of Merlin, written in c. 1150. There, she is presented as a benevolent healer on the Isle of Avalon, to whom Arthur is taken after the Battle of Camlann. In subsequent sources, such as the writings of Chretien de Troyes, she has an expanded role, being portrayed as Arthurs sister. Nevertheless, there is no hint of evil in her character up to this point.However, this all changes once we get to the 13th century. In c. 1200, Robert de Boron wrote the poem Merlin. In c. 1210, this was then adapted into a prose version, possibly written by the same author. This served as the basis for the Vulgate Cycle, written between c. 1210-1235. It is the Vulgate Cycle that presents one version of the classic tale of Morgan le Feys life.She was known to have studied magic while she was being brought up in the nunnery, by William Henry Margetson, 1914. Source: University of RochesterAccording to this Prose Merlin, Morgan was the daughter of Igerna, King Arthurs mother. However, her father was not Uther Pendragon but the Duke of Cornwall. In the most popular version of the legend, the duke in question was Gorlois, Igernas previous husband. However, some versions make her illegitimate. Her sisters were Blasine (better known as Elaine, from Thomas Malorys much later Le Morte dArthur) and Brimesent (better known as Morgause, from Le Morte dArthur).While the Vulgate Cycle presents Arthurs sisters as marrying kings apparently early on after Uther killed Igernas husband and took her for himself, things were different in Morgans case. She was sent to a convent. There, at least according to one version, she became an expert in the seven arts and applied herself to studying magic, astrology, and healing. It was from this upbringing that she eventually became a powerful sorceress. She is portrayed as being extremely clever and beautiful but also contentious and difficult to reason with when angry.Animosity Between Morgan le Fey and King ArthurName of Urien Rheged in Jesus College MS 111, folio 141r, 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Library, OxfordThe various tales in the Vulgate Cycle are not completely consistent with each other. Nevertheless, Morgan is generally portrayed as betrothed or married to Urien of Gorre after her education in the convent. This figure, interestingly, is known to have been historical. He was Urien Rheged, king of a kingdom in the north of England and southern Scotland. His lover in Welsh tradition is a certain Modron, probably derived in part from the Celtic goddess Dea Matrona. This means that Morgan le Fey can partially be derived from this Celtic goddess.In any case, the legend tells of how Morgan, married to Urien, served as one of the court ladies of Guinevere, King Arthurs queen. At the same time, she was unhappy with her husband, Urien. This set of circumstances set the stage for her conflict with King Arthur, which defined her relationship with him throughout the rest of his reign and made her a villain. What exactly happened?Lancelot Brings Guenevere to Arthur, from the Book of Romance, by Andrew Lang, 1902. Source: Project GutenbergWhile serving Guinevere, the two women were very close. They had an excellent relationship, even sharing two near-identical rings as a sign of their friendship. At the same time, being unhappy with Urien, Morgan started an affair with one of Arthurs knights or vassals named Guiomar. This is consistent with the following description from the Suite du Merlin:But she was the most lustful woman in all Great Britain and the lewdest.Morgan le Fey, by Frederick Sandys, 1864. Source: Birmingham Museum and Art GalleryGuinevere eventually discovered that this affair was going on. Of course, Morgan was Guineveres friend. At the same time, Guiomar was one of Arthurs allies. Guinevere insisted on breaking up the affair to preserve the honor of everyone involved and of Arthurs court. This infuriated Morgan, who withdrew from Camelot and turned her back on the queen. This is what started her lifelong hostility against Guinevere and, by extension, King Arthur. In other words, this affair with Guiomar is what leads to her becoming a villain. Interestingly, Thomas Malory does not mention this event, leaving unexplained how or why Morgan became villainous.How Morgan le Fey Became a SorceressThe Lady of the Lake (Viviane) with Merlin, in Witches Tree, by Edward Burne-Jones, c. 1882. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter leaving Camelot, Morgan went to Merlin to be tutored by him. According to some versions of the legend, as we have already seen, Morgans time in the convent provided her with considerable knowledge in magic, healing, and astrology. However, other versions do not present her as acquiring any supernatural knowledge or abilities while there. One example is the Vulgate Lancelot. In any case, there is general agreement that she either started or resumed her study of magic under Merlin, the great magician.After being tutored under Merlin for a long time, Morgan became an expert sorceress. At the same time, the two of them become lovers. In some versions of the legend, the love is unrequited. Morgan eventually drives Merlin away after learning everything that she can from him, threatening him if he does not leave her alone. Having now become a powerful sorceress from what Merlin has taught her, Morgan begins scheming her revenge on Arthurs queen.Morgan le Fey Schemes Against Arthurs KingdomMorgan le Fey Casts Away the Scabbard, by Henry Justice Ford, 1902. Source: Wikimedia CommonsFrom this point on, Morgan engages in constant schemes to get revenge on Guinevere and to overthrow Arthur. Not only does she want revenge on Guinevere for interfering in her affair with Guiomar, but she also lusts after power for herself. One particularly notable episode was when she plotted to kill Arthur and her husband Urien with her lover, a certain Accolon. However, this scheme failed. Arthur killed Accolon in battle, despite Morgans efforts to ensure Accolons victory. Nevertheless, Morgan later finds herself with the opportunity to steal Arthurs magical, protective scabbard. She throws it into a lake, causing it to be lost forever.While not succeeding in killing Arthur directly, this act of Morgan is very important. It is because of losing his scabbard that Arthur again becomes completely vulnerable in battle. This, in turn, leads to him being mortally wounded at the Battle of Camlann many years later. Hence, Morgans actions did lead to Arthurs death, albeit not immediately.Morgan le Fey with Lancelot depicted on a fresco at Siedlcin Tower, Poland, c. 14th century. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThroughout the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate Cycle, as well as Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur and other tales, Morgan is a constant source of threat to Arthur and his kingdom. The famous story of the Green Knight, whose head was chopped off non-fatally by Gawain in Arthurs court, was set in motion by Morgan le Fey to terrify Guinevere. On various occasions, she attempted to reveal the affair that was occurring between Guinevere and Lancelot.At one point, Morgan pretends to try to make peace with Arthur. She sends him a mantle that would kill the wearer. Fortunately for Arthur, he does not put it on himself. Rather, to test its safety, he has Morgans messenger wear it first. The messenger, a girl for whom Morgan has great affection, falls down dead.Morgan le Fey gave a shield to Sir Tristram, by Aubrey Beardsley, 1893. Source: Wikimedia CommonsEventually, according to the Vulgate Mort Artu, Morgan became tired of scheming against Arthur. She retired to a beautiful castle and lived there essentially in isolation. However, Arthur happened to stumble across it. Morgan received him kindly, and the two apparently reconciled. Nevertheless, Morgan took the opportunity to show him the frescoes that Lancelot had painted while imprisoned there, which revealed his affair with Guinevere. This, finally, contributed to the end of Arthurs kingdom by virtue of the massive conflict that it caused.Morgan le Fey in the Arthurian LegendsVoyage of King Arthur and Morgan Le Fay to the Isle of Avalon, by Frank William Warwick Topham, 1888. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn summary, Morgan le Fey is a powerful sorceress in the Arthurian legends. She is a major enemy of King Arthur, being responsible for considerable conflict throughout his reign, despite being his half-sister. This all started when her affair with Guiomar was discovered by Guinevere. This resulted in her leaving Camelot and searching for Merlin, who trained her in the magical arts. From this point on, she regularly engaged in schemes to kill Arthur or expose Guineveres affair with Lancelot.In two important ways, she did bring about Arthurs downfall. Firstly, she threw away Arthurs magical scabbard, leaving him vulnerable in battle. Secondly, towards the end of Arthurs reign, she helped to reveal that Guinevere and Lancelot were having an affair. This led to war between Arthur and Lancelot, ultimately leading to Arthurs mortal injury at the Battle of Camlann.Nonetheless, Morgan retired to the Isle of Avalon, as in her very earliest appearance in literature, where she occupied the role of Arthurs healer.

The Million-Pound Potato Recall That Went International...

While its supposed to be tough, the new Lies of P Overture DLC might take the challenge too far. A new directors letter from developer Neowiz acknowledges how some parts of the expansion didnt quite turn out as intended, and the team promises that its looking into potential difficulty nerfs soon. Judging by the community response to this, the main issue is with New Game Plus, which appears to be making the game punishingly unfair. Continue reading Lies of P Overture's difficulty to be nerfed, as players struggle with the DLCMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best RPGs, Best fantasy games, Best soulslikes

Which characters are in 2XKO?Predicting the final roster isn't aseasy to do with theLeague of Legends spinoff. After all, there are over 140 potential Champions to pick from.Just like League of Legends and Valorant, we're fully expecting Riot to add to their roster of characters in thefighting gameevery so often. It's difficult to say how long it takes to create a fighter for2XKO, but if other fighting games are anything to go by, we could expect a new roster addition every few months. The2XKO release date is set for later this year, giving us plenty of time to analyze and assess the current roster of 2XKO characters and their movesets. Continue reading All 2XKO characters and movesetsMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best fighting games, LoL tier list , 2XKO characters

What is the Onimusha Way of the Sword release date? Its been almost 20 years since the last new Onimusha game launched. The last mainline entry was Dawn of Dreams following Jean Reno's infamous appearance in Onimusha 3, but poor sales put the series on ice. Until now.Its time to sharpen that sword and make peace with your inner demons again, because we've got a confirmed release window for Onimusha Way of the Sword. Set mainly in feudal Japan, the samurai game revolves around harvesting souls from your fallen foes to become stronger and defeating whatever big boss happens to be standing in your way. Heres what we know about the Onimusha: Way of the Sword release date window. Continue reading Onimusha Way of the Sword release date estimate, story, and gameplayMORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best horror games, Best samurai games, Onimusha Way of the Sword release date estimate