How Native Americans Were Not Granted U.S. Citizenship Until 1924 - History Collection

4. The Dawes Act and Allotment Era

The Dawes Act of 1887 marked a major shift in U.S. policy, aiming to assimilate Native Americans by dividing communal tribal lands into individual parcels, or allotments. While those who accepted allotments were technically eligible for U.S. citizenship, many Native people resisted this forced assimilation. As a result, the majority still remained without citizenship, and the policy ultimately led to significant loss of tribal land and identity (via National Park Service).

5. Selective Paths to Citizenship

Before 1924, a handful of selective paths allowed some Native Americans to become U.S. citizens. These included serving in the military, marrying a non-Native citizen, or accepting land allotments under federal policies. However, these options were limited and reached only a small fraction of the Native population, leaving most people excluded from full citizenship rights (via History.com).

6. Resistance to Forced Assimilation

Native communities actively resisted assimilation policies such as boarding schools and land allotments, which were designed to erase their languages, cultures, and identities. Many families sought to protect their traditions by hiding their children or refusing to cooperate with federal authorities. This steadfast opposition demonstrated a deep commitment to preserving tribal sovereignty and cultural heritage, even in the face of overwhelming government pressure (via PBS).

7. The Influence of the Fourteenth Amendment

The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, promised citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.” However, Native Americans living under tribal jurisdiction were explicitly excluded from its protections. This legal loophole continued to deny most Native people citizenship and equal rights, despite broader constitutional reforms (via National Constitution Center).

8. World War I and Native Military Service

During World War I, thousands of Native Americans enlisted and served bravely, despite the fact that most were not recognized as U.S. citizens. Their service on the battlefield highlighted the contradiction of denying citizenship to people willing to defend the nation. This remarkable sacrifice helped shift public opinion and fueled growing support for granting Native Americans full citizenship rights in the years following the war (via Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian).

9. The 1924 Indian Citizenship Act

The passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924 marked a historic turning point in Native American history. This federal law granted full U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born within the United States, regardless of tribal affiliation or prior legal status. The act was a response to changing attitudes, Native military service, and persistent advocacy, finally ending centuries of legal exclusion. However, while it recognized citizenship, it did not automatically guarantee the right to vote in every state (via U.S. House of Representatives History).

10. Continued Barriers to Voting

Despite gaining citizenship in 1924, many Native Americans still faced significant obstacles to voting. States imposed discriminatory laws—like literacy tests, residency requirements, and outright bans—that kept Native people from participating in elections for decades. This struggle for full voting rights continued well into the 20th century and, in some places, is ongoing today (via NPR).

11. State-by-State Discrimination

Even after the 1924 Act, some states like Arizona and New Mexico continued to bar Native Americans from voting until as late as the 1940s and 1950s. These local policies reflected ongoing prejudice and delayed the realization of true citizenship and political participation for many Native people (via Smithsonian Magazine).

12. The Importance of Dual Citizenship

Today, Native Americans hold a unique position as both U.S. citizens and citizens of their respective sovereign tribal nations. This dual citizenship grants them certain rights and responsibilities under federal, state, and tribal law. It also underscores the ongoing recognition of tribal sovereignty and the importance of maintaining cultural and political identities within the United States. Navigating these intertwined legal systems remains a complex—but vital—aspect of Native life (via Native American Rights Fund).

13. Ongoing Struggles for Full Equality

Despite significant progress, Native Americans continue to face ongoing struggles for true equality. Challenges remain in areas such as political representation, protection of sacred lands, and access to equal justice and resources. Systemic barriers and historical inequities still impact Native communities, demanding continued advocacy and awareness. The fight for full recognition of rights and the honoring of treaties and promises persists in the present day (via American Bar Association).

14. Modern Reflections on Citizenship

Today, many Native American communities reflect thoughtfully on the legacy of the 1924 Indian Citizenship Act. While citizenship opened new opportunities, the ongoing responsibility to preserve tribal identities and sovereignty remains paramount. Balancing participation in U.S. society with the protection of Native traditions and self-governance continues to shape conversations about what citizenship means for Indigenous peoples today (via Indian Country Today).

15. Recognition and Reconciliation Efforts

In recent years, governments and organizations have taken steps to acknowledge historic injustices against Native Americans and pursue reconciliation. Initiatives include public apologies, policy reforms, and renewed commitments to honoring tribal sovereignty and cultural heritage. These efforts aim to build trust, foster understanding, and support healing between Native nations and broader American society (via National Congress of American Indians).