Although its history dates back to the Neolithic, the Roman Empire, and Moorish rule, it was Portuguese Royalty who made it famous. Sintras romantic palaces and mystical aura have served as an inspiration to poets and artists throughout the years. In Sintra, you can wander the old towns streets, explore one of the oldest Moorish castles in Europe, and admire the breathtaking view of Pena Palace floating on a hilltop.Sintras PastPhotograph of Sintra Historic Center, by Ray in Manilla, 2020. Source: FlickrThis stunning village witnessed almost every period in Portugals history. The first traces of human occupation date back to the Paleolithic and Neolithic, followed by the Bronze and Iron Ages. The Romans also settled here, but it was the Moors who stayed the longest. In the Middle Ages, Sintra was a renowned location among royals. However, it was between the 18th and 19th centuries when the village had its golden age era.Ancient SintraConquest of Roman Hispania with dates. Source: Wikimedia CommonsThe oldest evidence of human occupation found in Sintra is on its mountainous northern slope, where archaeologists discovered several utensils at Penha Verde. Next to the Moorish Castle Chapel, the open-air site of So Pedro de Penaferrim was found. Here, several pieces of ceramics were retrieved and were later dated to the 5th millennium BCE.During the Roman occupation, present-day Sintra belonged to the vast territory of Civitas Olisiponensis, where Olisipo (today Lisbon) was the regions capital. The local population quickly adjusted to the Roman arrival by adopting Roman names and being present in cultural, political, and economic affairs.In Sintra, archaeologists have found random evidence of Roman occupation that suggests this territory was inhabited from the 2nd to the 5th centuries BCE to the 5th century CE. One such find is the road connecting the mountains southeast region to the surrounding rural area, which would have connected to the Olissipo Road.Moorish SintraCastle of the Moors, by Pierre Goiffon. Source: UnsplashThe Moors arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 711 after crossing the Mediterranean Sea in Gibraltar. Due to internal conflicts among the Visigoth rulers, the Moors barely had any resistance after their arrival. They conquered cities and towns while marching North and reached Braga, the largest northern city in the Visigothic Kingdom, in 717.Unfortunately, researchers have yet to discover the precise date Sintra adopted the Arab name As-Shantara and was conquered by the Moors. During the Moorish occupation, the first texts suggest Shantara was a village highly dependent on Lisbon and that it was considered one of the most important urban centers in the area.Maybe this is why the Moors repurposed the foundations of an ancient castle and built the impressive Moorish fortifications you can still visit today. Its main purpose was to control the roads connecting Sintra to Mafra, Cascais, and Lisbon.The Middle Ages to the Age of DiscoveryBronze statue of King Afonso Henriques in Guimares by Soares dos Reis, 1887. Source: FlickrConsidering Sintra was a strategic location and one of the most important villages after Lisbon, Christian armies made it their main goal. That is why, during the Reconquista, the castle and the village were raided several times.In 1093, King Afonso VI of Leon received Sintras Castle, along with Lisbon and Santarm, following a period of political instability between several Muslim Taifas. However, Sintras Castle was only conquered in 1109 during Count Henry of Burgundys efforts to secure the Tagus River border.In 1147, Portugals first king and Count Henry of Burgundys son Afonso Henriques definitively conquered Sintra, making it a Christian territory. The king granted Sintra a charter, which established the municipality of Sintra, which included a vast region divided into four parishes.Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, military and religious orders settled in Sintra and its surroundings due to its fertile lands and amenable weather. In the following decades, convents and monasteries were built or donated to the Church. After the Reconquista, Sintras population lived in peace, and Christians and Moorish co-existed.In the 14th century, the Black Death, which killed nearly 50% of the European population, also reached Sintra. The humid and cold weather from Sintras mountains helped spread the disease, killing most of its inhabitants.Between the 15th and 14th centuries, Sintra became famous due to a few inhabitants who left their hometown to explore the world. Among them were Gonalo de Sintra and Soeiro da Costa. At the same time, King Manuel I (1495-1521) transformed and enriched the village and its surroundings. Pao da Vila and the reconstruction of the old Gothic church of So Martinho are a few examples of his works.During the second half of the 16th century, Sintra became an established courtly center, mostly encouraged by the rising aristocracy who built their manors and estates here.Portugals Spanish Rule and the 1755 EarthquakeAllegory of the 1755 Earthquake, by Joao Glama Stroberle, 1756-92. Source: Wikimedia CommonsAfter the death of Cardinal Henrique, Spanish King Filipe II became Portugals new king as Filipe I. Over the next 60 years, Portugal lost its independence. As a result, Sintras importance was transferred to Vila Viosa, a tiny village in the Alentejo region, which is home to the kings House of Bragana. On the verge of the Restoration War in 1639, Sintra was no longer favored by aristocrats and royals.Almost a century later, Sintra, and all territories south of Lisbon, were hit by a massive earthquake, in 1755. The village lost most of its population, and the few buildings standing were too damaged to serve their purpose. Pao da Vila was one of them, and restoration works began shortly after.Sintras Golden Age EraPena Palace, gothic tower, by Helder Burato Berto. Source: UnsplashFrom the end of the 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, foreign travelers and the Portuguese aristocracy rediscovered Sintras charm. During this period, wealthy businessmen and aristocrats built their lavish homes here, influenced by Romanticism and reflected in Neo-Gothic and Moorish architecture-style buildings. Some of the most beautiful buildings in Portugal were built during this period, such as Palcio da Pena, Quinta da Regaleira, and Palcio de Monserrat.The lavish green forest surrounding Sintra, its stunning palaces, and its romantic ambiance were inviting to poets, painters, and other artists from all over Europe. You can admire Sintras influence in the works of Henry Fielding, Robert Southey, and Lord Byron.Iconic Historic Sites in SintraSintra is a fairy-tale-like village amid a dense forest that baffles anyone who visits. Besides admiring dense green woodland and the unique climate, you can also wander through some of the most beautiful historic buildings you will ever see.1. The Moorish CastlePhotograph of Castelo dos Mouros, by Bobby Rahe, 2020. Source: UnsplashThe Castelo dos Mouros is the largest Moorish castle in Portugal. From the village center, you can only see the massive round boulders on which the castle sits on a hilltop. You almost get the feeling the boulders will start rolling downhill.You will get the most impressive view from the castle walls themselves. On the hill next to it is Palcio da Pena, and down below is the small village of Sintra. While looking in the distance, you will find an endless landscape stretching as far as the eyes can see.Although it is called the Moorish Castle, historians and archaeologists believe its foundations are much older, dating back to the Celtic tribes living in the Iberian Peninsula. Yet, it was the Moors in the 8th century who built the monument you see today.During the Reconquista, Christian armies tried several times to conquer the castle, whose main purpose was to control the roads leading to Mafra and Lisbon. Yet, they were successful only in 1147 after King Afonso Henriques captured Lisbon and gained control over Sintra. In the 19th century, the castle walls were rebuilt, and new trees were planted around it.In the last 20 years, several excavations have revealed that the castles location was used from the Neolithic through to the Middle Ages. While visiting the castle, you can admire the prehistoric artifacts retrieved from this incredible historic site.2. Pena PalacePalcio da Pena, by Katia de Juan, 2019. Source: UnsplashPalcio da Pena is a breathtaking building and one of the most visited monuments in Portugal. Architecture enthusiasts believe this is one of the best examples of 19th-century romantic revivalism.The Palace was built on Monte da Pena (hence the name) over an old convent of friars of the Order of St. Jerome. The man behind it was Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who married Queen Maria II in 1836. He fell in love with Sintra and bought the convent and surrounding land to build the royal family a summer house.The palace designs adopted several architectural features from the Portuguese revivalist style, which included Neo-Gothic, Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic, and Neo-Renaissance features. Around this mesmerizing building, the king decided to build an impressive English-style park, with exotic tree species. Inside the palace, you can still admire the kings decorations.3. Monserrate PalacePhotograph of Palcio de Monserrate, by Hakon Arekjold, 2019. Source: UnsplashMontserrate Palace is an iconic landmark in Portugal. Here, different architectural styles come together to form a unique building and style you will not find anywhere else.Architect James Knowles designed the palace, which was built under the orders of Sir Francis Cook. The garden construction took advantage of Sintras unique microclimate, resulting in a magnificent park with more than 3,000 exotic species.This was Cooks family summer residence and was built over the ruins of a Neo-Gothic mansion. In 1793, William Beckford rented the property and refurbished the palace and gardens. Later, in 1809, Lord Byron visited Monserrate Palace. The propertys appearance inspired Byron to write Childe Harolds Pilgrimage, making it a must-visit stop for foreign travelers.The Portuguese Government acquired the palace in 1949 and classified it as a Property of Public Interest in 1975.4. Sintra PalacePhotograph of Palcio de Sintra, by Javier Gallego, 2021. Source: FlickrPalcio de Sintra is a unique example of a medieval royal palace in Portugal. Since the earliest dynasties, Sintra has been a preferred location for royals. However, the stunning palace we see today was rebuilt by King Joo I and enriched by King Manuel I.Inside, you can learn about Portugals history and admire the different architectural styles that reflect the tastes of the kings who lived here. Some of the most famous areas are the Swan Room, the Coat of Arms Room, the Handles Room, and the chapel. Here, you can also learn about the Portuguese tile history, and the site includes Hispano-Arabic examples of traditional blue and white tiles from the 18th century.5. Quinta da Regaleira PalacePhotograph of Quinta da Regaleira, by Raja Sen, 2020. Source: UnsplashClose to the historic center is Quinta da Regaleira, one of the most enigmatic places in Sintra.The Quinta da Regaleira Palace was built in the early 20th century by millionaire Antnio Augusto Carvalho Monteiro. Architect Luigi Manini helped Monteiros dreams come true by designing a unique building surrounded by lush vegetation.The palace was built in a Romantic Revivalist style, recovering Gothic, Manueline, and Renaissance architectural and decorative forms mixed with mythic and esoteric symbolism.While visiting Quinta da Regaleira, look for the Chapel of the Holy Trinity. It leads down to the crypt and a spiral staircase to the monumental initiation well. At the bottom, you will find a grotto and a lake in the middle of the gardens.6. Convento dos CapuchosConvent of the Capuchos. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn contrast to the lavish palaces in Sintra, you will also find this humble Franciscan convent built in 1560 by Dom lvaro de Castro.Eight friars composed the original community here. The most well-known was Friar Honrio, who lived to be nearly 100 years old, despite spending the last three decades of his life doing penance in a small cave within the convent.With the extinction of religious orders in Portugal in 1834, the Franciscan community was forced to leave the convent. Later, still in the 19th century, the space was acquired by Sir Francis Cook.In 1949, the Portuguese government acquired the property. Due to a lack of investment, the convent became a ruin and was in dire need of repairs. Since 2000, the company Parques de Sintra has been responsible for managing and restoring this landmark. Today, the Convento dos Capuchos is open for visitors while restoration works are underway.

By 1940, Mussolinis Fascists had governed for almost two decades. Mussolini and Hitlers close bonds only tightened once the Tripartite Pact got signed on September 27, 1940. They had much in common a belief in their own ability, political ambition, and zero tolerance for dissent.But the paper tiger that Italy under Mussolini projected only roared with a little bite. Italys empire by 1940 consisted of Albania, Libya, and Ethiopia, all taken by force. Mussolini knew of Italys economic problems but believed the war would be a short conflict. Mussolinis ministers told him no war until 1942. Italys outdated economy, inflation problems, and military were unready. Yet Mussolini went to war.Why Italys Industry Was Doomed in WWIIA map of Italy during World War II, featuring landing sites of the Western Allies in September 1943. Source: The National WWII Museum, New OrleansUnlike Germany, Italys industry wasnt ready for war. Mussolinis sudden actions caught Italian factories unprepared for arms production. Though Italy had plenty of steel, its industrial capacity fell well below Great Britain and Germany in production numbers. This lack hindered the production and equipping of what the military needed for war.Italys army displayed the countrys unreadiness. Italys pre-war involvement in places like Spains Civil War showed Italian forces could fight. However, these used small numbers of troops. When Mussolini decided the time right for war, Italys army numbered seventy-one divisions. Of those in 1940, only nineteen were fully equipped with the correct number of men, guns, and ammunition. Many lacked transport and different kinds of guns for defense, such as antitank and antiaircraft.Similar to Germany, Italy lacked the oil needed to make war. The Italian economy produced less oil than Greece. Britains economy produced nearly two hundred times more oil and thirteen times more steel.Mussolinis Costly Pre-1940 EntanglementsPhotograph of Benito Mussolini by H. Roger-Viollet. Source: Le FigaroMussolinis dreams of empire, support for like-minded regimes, and pacifications stressed Italys coffers or resources. Its Libyan colonies, seized during the 1912 Italo-Turkish War, required building infrastructure, especially after 1925. Plus, the Libyans revolted often, requiring troops to pacify the country, killing thousandsNot content with Libya, Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 to annex the country. Mussolini used a border skirmish as an excuse plus Ethiopia lay unclaimed or conquered. After its defeat, Ethiopias strategic location would prove useful against Britains empire. Italy maintained a 250,000-man army, with dozens of aircraft and ships requiring resources it couldnt afford.Franco photographed standing behind Adolf Hitler in Vichy France, October 1940. Source: El MundoThe Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936 as the Fascist Franco fought to take over the country. Mussolini promised both financial and military support. He dispatched over 60,000 men along with 6500 motor vehicles and hundreds of tanks and planes. This support helped Franco immensely, but at a cost.The Civil War ended in 1939, during which Italy spent 8.5 billion lira or one year of its military spending. Italys intervention proved vital but costly, but few would Il Duce. Mussolinis final pre-World War II finale came with Albanias annexation. Though only five days long, the occupation needed additional troops and lira.Italys Military Disaster: Outdated and UnderequippedRoyal Air Force in Italy. Source: raiplay.itMuch has been written about Italys military in World War II. The above and more contributed to its mixed performance for different reasons. First came the outdated equipment and philosophy, principally the Royal Italian Army and Air Force. The Air Force, or Regia Aeronautica Italiana, used biplane fighters against the monoplane fighter. The biplane maneuvered better in Great War-style dogfights. Monoplanes, like Germanys BF-190 or Britains Spitfire, with their greater speed and ceiling, chose when to fight, knowing better than to dogfight. Italy deployed the CR-42 Falco (Falcon), probably the finest biplane built but for the wrong era.A second Achilles heel for Italian planes came with its engines. Most pre-1940 Italian warplanes used the easier-to-build and maintain radial engines. These rarely produced enough power, and Italys scant resources hampered development. Multi-engine planes like bombers or transports required three engines instead of two engines, like their contemporaries.Benito Mussolini of Italy overlooking a crowd in Rome during the late 1930s. Source: Foreign PolicyThe Regia Marina, or navy, possessed decent battleships but lacked radar, giving the Royal Navy a tactical advantage. Italy lacked resources to build aircraft carriers, giving the British another leg up. Twice during World War II Mediterranean Sea conflicts, carrier aircraft enabled the British to win. Lastly, many Italian troops were only conscripts, lacking training or using Great War weapons. Italian tanks were suitable for the 1930s but were few in number and obsolete by 1940.Mussolini took Italy to war, despite the condition of the military, crippling debt, and bad geopolitical decisions. The earlier conflicts bled away much-needed capital, materials, and men that Italy, by 1940, was woefully unprepared for the big war.

An electric elevator installed for Queen Margherita of Italy in 1905 has been restored, not to its original function, but to its original wood paneled beauty. The elevator connected the first floor where the queen and her ladies lived to the ground floor of the Palazzina di Caccia di Stupinigi, a royal hunting lodge on the outskirts of Turin. It had a wooden cabin with a sliding door with eight frosted glass windows. A Bakelite button panel is lost, leaving behind only minute traces.Of the old elevator in Stupinigi, only the wooden cabin was preserved, as if suspended in time, since the electrical and hydraulic pump instrumentation as described in the documents was no longer preserved. The space that houses the wooden cabin had been separated from the basement, where the systems must have been located, and from the upper floor by partitions built during the second half of the twentieth century. The cabin was preserved not entirely intact in its internal parts but still maintained the two doors that allowed access to the compartment and the historic glass in place. The elevator was internally illuminated and had a button panel that is no longer preserved.The restoration involved the repair of the poplar structure and the walnut veneer that had detachments and deformations due to humidity. The dome, decorated with a baluster motif, had numerous gaps that were filled in. Scientific analyses allowed us to study the protective varnishes and determine the most suitable solution to restore the artifact to a stable and durable condition.Elevators have a long history in Italy. Of course the ancient Romans had the pulley elevators in the underground of the Colosseum that raised wild animals to the arena floor and similar devices were used to carry heavy materials in the construction of medieval cathedrals. But Italy claims an important first in elevator history. The first elevator in the modern sense of a mechanical cabin permanently installed in a building to transport people between different floors was the elevator that brought people up to the dome of St. Peters Basilica so they didnt have to trudge up 320 stairs. It was installed in the 16th century.The Officine Meccaniche Stigler created its first hydraulic lift to transport people up and down floors in 1870. The Grand Hotel Costanzi in Rome. The first Stigler Electric Lift was produced in 1895. It had a rope system to control the ascent and descent, but that was soon replaced by push buttons. The new electric push button-operated elevators became all the rage and the Savoy royal family had them installed in several of their palaces.Princess Maria Clotilde di Savoia had a beautiful Stigler elevator installed in her residence, the Moncalieri Castle, in the first years of the 1900s. The Moncalieri elevator also went up and down a single floor, connecting the princess apartment on the first floor with her daughter Maria Letizias apartment on the ground floor. It too was recently restored as part of a much larger restoration project in the wake of a 2008 fire that devastated the castle. Thankfully, almost all of its original elements survived. It is made of wood, glass and brass, and is intact with its glass access door and two sliding doors with glass panels opening to an inner cabin. The original electric motor is still in place, as is the brass lever system that operated the elevator. Today the elevator is in active use, making the first floor accessible to visitors with mobility issues.

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